Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) off-gassed from an aqueous solution and reacted incrementally with potassium iodide solutions (sinks). After 30 min, 45% of the initial dose was detected as chlorite ion in the sink, whereas 35% of the initial dose was still in the source. "

**** {Includes charts of ClO2 efficacy against various pathogens on different objects and areas in a room} "Technical solutions allow other suppliers to provide control of their [chlorine dioxide fumigation] systems from outside the treated area, while their machines remain within the treated room. These include delays in start function on the machine or wire-less operation of the system from outside the room. Alt-hough such systems allow for easier remote control and may provide useful information via remote screens dur-ing fumigation, they remain dependent on the ability to fully expose the machine to its own fumigant. "

****!!!!**** {Instructions for disinfecting truck cabs, using inexpensive chlorine dioxide tablets, and disinfection in meat plants."

" Chlorine Dioxide: Use Geobacillus stearothermophilus as BI (?)" "The Halide Group, ClorDiSys Solutions, Sabre Technologies (different reaction)" "--“True gas – no condensation issues" "Mild corrosion/discoloring to cold steel, copper, brass: Particularly in the presence of water. Potentially corrosive if Chlorine gas (Cl2) is present -- Care to avoid Cl2 in synthesized CD -- Care to avoid Cl2 creation by UV exposure" "Typical duration conditioning through decontamination: 1-1.5 hr. Typical duration of aeration / scrubbing: 0.25-0.5 hr"

"The initial rate is high to provide sufficient chlorine dioxide to penetrate the various surfaces demands within the volume requiring fumigation. This rate is predetermined to accommodate the surface demand as well as to provide the initial charge of the volume requiring fumigation to a predetermined chlorine dioxide residual level. The chlorine dioxide generation rate is then reduced appropriately to maintain the predetermined chlorine dioxide concentration in the air of the volume requiring fumigation for a predetermined time. This can be achieved by a number of means, such as lowering the concentration of chlorine dioxide in the solution that is fed to the emitter, or lowering the flow rate of the chlorine dioxide solution to the emitter." "If the space to be fumigated contains materials that are potentially susceptible to corrosion, the chlorine dioxide should be of the highest possible purity. Specifically, chlorine gas should be present in the introduced gas at a level less than about 5%" "Typically, if the enclosed volume is 2280 ft3, air is suitably recirculated at 5 CFM"

"Two of the three computers in the 75 ppmv ClO2 75 percent run had surviving spores. The three computers that had condensing conditions due to a faulty valve... had a 100 percent kill rate."

", solutions of ClO2 do not fog well and are prone to foaming, so gas generation is more effective and practical" " Gaseous ClO2 systems are available for fumigating laboratory rooms or suites of rooms up to 800 m3... Humidifiers and fans are used within the treated area to maintain relative humidity, typically in the 65% to 75% RH range, and to encourage uniform mixing of gas and moisture in the treated area." "All lights must be turned off in the room during decontamination as ClO2 broken down by UV light. With some commercial systems, to avoid corrosion damage, the decontamination device is placed outside the treated room and the gas piped in via a one-way valve."

****!!!!****!!!! (2022)

"Other studies have shown 1.55 to 1.92 log kill rates on Bacillus subtilis on untreated gypsum wall board for commercially available bleach as well as for chlorine dioxide at 500 ppm" " The chlorine dioxide used was a commercially available product available at 0.05% chlorine dioxide (500 ppm) aqueous solution (Biocide, Inc., Stamford, CT). The distilled water had a negative kill rate and the chlorine dioxide had no effective kill rate (thus there was no antimicrobial effect). This could have been from the reaction with the gypsum board, thus reducing the oxidizing potential of the chlorine dioxide. " "Despite its effectiveness, chlorine dioxide has shown to be damaging to materials as well (Orlusky, 2005). Because all of these decontamination methods are at least somewhat hazardous to aircraft materials, they cannot be used on Air Force aircraft (AFRL, 2008) [possibly at least at levels that are effective against anthrax]"

"Hospital room decontamination protocols utilizing chlorine dioxide gas concentrations of 377 to 385 ppm maintained to exposures of 767 ppm-hours with 65% relative humidity consistently achieved complete inactivation of B. anthracis and B. atrophaeus spores." "This study translates laboratory chlorine dioxide fumigation studies applied in a complex clinical environment."

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****!!!!**** "Collection of a positive sample from a distance more than 2 m away from the nearest patient traffic implies the virus was in an aerosol." "A pilot SARS-CoV-2 air sampling study conducted at a clinic within a university student health care center" "Following detection of SARS-CoV-2 in air by our March 20 air-sampling study, remediation was accomplished by performing a 2-day decontamination process using a stabilized chlorine dioxide solution (VitalOxide™) delivered through a handheld electrostatic mist sprayer"

"A six (6) log reduction in viable spores can be obtained for the subway infrastructure materials by ClO2 fumigation if the temperature is at or above 24 °C combined with RH greater than 75%. These conditions occur both for 12 h fumigation at 230 ppmv ClO2 or 4 h at 3500 ppmv ClO2. No six log reduction in viable spores was observed at realistic (winter) temperatures in a subway environment (11-13 °C and 70-80% RH) for periods of fumigation that are otherwise efficacious at 24 °C/ 75% RH. Extending the fumigation time at this low temperature to 24 h at approximately 200 ppmv ClO2 or 9 h at 3300 ppmv ClO2 did not improve efficacy. Further research is recommended to identify whether efficacious ClO2 fumigation conditions may occur at low temperatures through, e.g., a pre-wetting of building surfaces immediately prior to fumigation."

The Tufts New England Regional Biosafety Laboratory facility has been using chlorine dioxide gas for 5 years, and 100 decontaminations have been done at the room level and on a Class III cabinet. The rooms have ranged from animal holding rooms containing animal racks (housing rodents and rabbits), biosafety cabinets, and computers to biosafety level 3 laboratories containing a variety of equipment (microscopes, biosafety cabinets, centrifuges, incubators, real-time polymerase chain reaction machines, etc). For a biosafety level 3 facility, the equipment is stainless steel where possible, but there is a variety of materials, including electronics and other sensitive equipment. No corrosion has been experienced on any equipment or surface despite repeated decontaminations. Even the most sensitive equipment has not experienced any ill effects. As a test, when decontaminations were started, a low-cost laptop computer was moved from room to room to a Class III cabinet, decontaminating it every time in each chamber. After 35 repeated exposures, it was still functioning with no issues. It is still in use in one of the animal rooms and gets decontaminated along with the room. The Class III cabinet has not shown any traces of corrosion on the stainless-steel interior, nor has the stainless-steel inhalation exposure system kept inside the cabinet experienced any ill effects. "CD easily penetrates and distributes into all spaces. It covers an entire room, penetrates deeply into equipment, and gets into the hard-to-reach places. It penetrates well into high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) caissons/filters and easily decontaminates duct work. Setup is simple and requires very few extras (only 1 or 2 fans and a portable humidifier)." "The odor threshold with CD gas provides a better safety factor, alerting the user to any leaks at low safe levels" "Twenty or more BIs may be used during a typical decontamination" ***"CD gas is an oxidizer, but when it is produced with a dry gas and used as a gas, it is not corrosive as gases in solutions typically are. Solutions of CD gas are typically corrosive due to the acids and sodium chlorite involved"*** "CH Technologies’ nose-only inhalation system used in the aerosolization of bacteria and viruses—was carefully scrutinized for any adverse signs (pitting, rust spots, etc) during repeated exposure to CD gas"

{Vital Oxide} "fogged disinfectant was delivered into the room (relative humidity 60%, 21°C) ... The machine was equipped with two nozzles, ...was capable of generating fogs at 30 ml/min per nozzle at opposite directions. This allowed us to adjust fog generation time, until desired disinfectant formulation concentrations of 7.1–15.9 ml/m3 were achieved. The target disinfectant formulation concentration was held for 5 min for H2O2 and 10 min for ClO2-surfactant-based product" "Evaluating the virucidal efficacy of a disinfectant solely based upon reduction in viral genomic reduction may underestimate the efficacy of disinfectants (Yeargin et al., 2015); therefore, testing the infectious titer of a non-enveloped cultivable surrogate provides further evidence" "demonstrated less than a 3 log10 reduction in FCV titer even after a 4-h contact time with 0.05 ppm ClO2 gas." "the ClO2-surfactant-based product was mildly efficacious against the tested viruses when used at the recommended disinfectant formulation concentration of 12.4 ml/m3."

"Factors including exposure dosage, relative humidity (RH), and flow rate (FR) influencing the disinfection effect of CD gas were investigated. Moreover, an autoptic disinfecting test on eight real gastrointestinal endoscopes after clinical use was performed using the experimental prototype. Results: RH, exposure dosage, organic burden, and the FR through the channel significantly (P0.05) affected the disinfection efficacy of CD gas for a long and narrow lumen. The log reduction increased as FR decreased. Treatment with 4 mg/L CD gas for 30 min at 0.8 L/min FR and 75% RH, resulted in complete inactivation of spores. Furthermore, all eight endoscopes with a maximum colony-forming unit of 915 were completely disinfected. The cost was only 3 CNY (0.46 USD) for each endoscope."

*****!!!!!*****!!!!**** {Detailed description of disinfection procedures and supplies for large facility} "Manual decontamination procedures are laborious ... requiring significant time and resources to complete... also may need to be repeated if initial efforts do not fully kill pathogens." "some areas may not come up to concentration as expected, either due to leakage or because gas consumption is greater than expected." "Chlorine dioxide gas has a low odor threshold (0.1 ppm), which coincides with the 0.1 ppm, eight-hour personal exposure level." "if the gas is highly visible, an experienced user knows the concentration is higher than the 1 mg/L target concentration." "Equipment... thin 3-mil plastic sheeting (for conveyor sealing...)" "6-mil plastic sheeting (for large-opening sealing...)"

****!!!!***** (2020) {This study was done via computer modeling that predicted some significantly different results than real-world. Example: Degradation of ClO2 throughout room was based on rate 1 m from fluorescent lamp. In actuality, little UV reaches beyond a couple meters, so rest of gas in room is unaffected other than gas blown into close proximity.} {Negative byproducts from chlorine dioxide gas fumigation} "previously unconsidered potential consequence of such cleaning technologies: the photochemical formation of high concentrations of hydroxyl radicals (OH), hydroperoxy radicals (HO2), organic peroxy radicals (RO2), and chlorine radicals (Cl) which can form harmful reaction products when exposed to chemicals commonly found in indoor air." "Steady-state Cl concentrations are elevated at all OClO concentrations under bare fluorescent and attenuated outdoor lighting, with little dependence on OClO concentration... because species involved in the reactions that lead to Cl formation, as well as Cl itself, can undergo competing reactions" " Sunlight is attenuated as it passes through windows, such that 3 and 10%, respectively, of UV and visible light ingresses" "We assume a ward volume of 35 m3 with an area to volume ratio of 1 m2/m" " temperature was assumed to be 293 K and 50% relative humidity" "The emissions were set to provide the approximate concentrations reported in the literature for NTD use... 3000 and 350 ppm for OClO (to reflect two commonly used concentrations). This required emission rates of... 0.8 and 0.1 ppm/s to deliver 3000 and 350 ppm of OClO " "The emissions were assumed to last for one hour and then stop. After another hour (at noon), ventilation was resumed at 2 per h. There is very little information in the literature on how long the gases will be emitted during cleaning" "Maximum... concentrations occurred [of] RO2 and Cl with OClO [chlorine dioxide] photolysis. Elevated concentrations may persist for hours... Products from reactions involving radicals could significantly decrease air quality when disinfectants are used, leading to adverse health effects for occupants" "OClO photolysis under attenuated sunlight is ~20 times faster than under bare fluorescent lighting," "O3 levels generated from OClO photolysis are much higher than those commonly attained using O3 as the primary fumigant""Photon fluxes will vary greatly throughout a room" "we suggest that the efficacy of NTDs on reducing loadings of several strains of bacteria should be further studied in the dark and under illumination from different indoor lighting. It is possible that efficacy will be greatly enhanced under common lighting sources such as fluorescent lights due to the production of radicals that may inactivate bacteria more effectively than the disinfection agents." "[This info needs verification:] There is no ClOO absorbance at wavelengths longer than 280 nm"

Gas treatment: "Place one gallon of water in a pail, hang the battery-powered aerator on the edge and extend the hose with an air stone to the bottom. Place the pail in the center of the truck on the floor, turn on the aerator and place a 100 gram ClO2 tablet into the pail and exit the truck cab, closing vents, doors and windows for five hours or until vapors cease and water is clear. Leaving overnight is ideal. When the ClO2 solution has turned clear, it can be disposed of." Spray/fog treatment: "Between 250 ppm and 500 ppm, and fill a wet fogger or sprayer with the ClO2 solution. Wet fog or lightly spray all surfaces, ceiling to floor, allowing five minutes of wet contact time... Chlorine dioxide can be used in vapor- or a liquid-form, but as a liquid it is more fragile and its effectiveness is vulnerable to sunlight. Once diluted from tablet- to liquid-form, it has a shelf life of up to six months if stored correctly in an air-tight opaque container out of direct sunlight."

2014. {Sabre was the company that did government anthrax fumigation} ***Detailed instructions on fumigation procedures. "C1O2 solution at a concentration level of approximately 1,000-4,000 ppm percent" "minimum temperature of 70° Fahrenheit (F) for at least one hour at all temperaturemonitoring points before introducing C1O2 gas" " three C1O2 precursor chemicals and neutralization chemicals (e.g., 25% sodium hydroxide, 36% sodium bisulfite, 50% hydrogen peroxide, or Erythorbic acid--Note: type and quantity dependent on active scrubbing solution media chosen)" "Dehumidify the building promptly after completion of C1O2 gas removal" "Minimum temperature of 70° F, minimum RH of 70%, and either (a) a minimum C1O2 concentration of 500 ppmv or (b) a minimum C1O2 concentration of 3,000 ppmv at all monitoring locations to start the concentration by time (CT) building exposureclock. Conduct fumigation with a minimum duration of either (a) 12 hours or (b) 3 hours that achieves a minimum CT Clock value of at least 9,000 ppmv-hours at all monitoring locations"

methods utilized for the decontamination of Class II biological safety cabinets (BSCs).

{Gives doses for air applications in ppm and grams of PureVista tablets for fumigation and other uses} "Placing (1) PureVista 100 (100 g/3.53 oz.) into 4 liters/1 gallon of water provides 2,000 ppm solution. "

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****** "ClO2 gas was effective in reducing culturable and total fungi and bacteria in indoor air. The reduction of total count on surfaces was less efficient. The treatment process appeared to have no effect or increase the concentrations of endotoxin and (133)-
-D-glucan, which have been associated with respiratory symptoms in some individuals." "Endotoxin concentrations before and after ClO2 treatment were 10.32 and 18.59 endotoxin units per cubicmeter (EU/m3), respectively. Paired tests comparing endotoxin concentrations before and after treatment showed no significant difference. " "House tented decontamination: Greater than 650 ppm in air for 12.5 hours" "Both the total microscopic count and the PCR count obtained for air samples decreased significantly. This could be caused by direct reduction of spores in the air or reduction of spores on surfaces that would serve as the source for the airborne spores. However, no decrease was observed in the semiquantitative analysis of amount of spores and hyphae in the stickytape samples collected from surfaces."

{Used ClorDiSys equipment} 315 ppmmaintained to an exposure of 479 ppm-hours with 65% RH failed to inactivate all five organisms, including both spores and vegetative cells, in the ambulance. Trial 4, maintaining 695 ppm ClO2to 756 ppm-hourswith 55% RH, was sufficient for complete inactivationofA. baumanniiandM. smegmatis vegetative cells within the ambulance, but failed to achieve total inacti-vation ofB. anthracis and B. atrophaeusspores as well as S. aureus vegetative cells located inside the closed cabinet" "The ClO2 gas generator uses a five-phase programmable decontamination protocol to include: 1) preconditioning phase, when the RH is elevated to a specified level and the environment is checked for leaks; 2) conditioning phase, where the desirable RH is maintained for a specified time; 3) charge phase, where the ClO2 gas is generated to a target concentration; 4) exposure phase, where the target concentration of ClO2 is maintained to the specified exposure time; and 5) aeration phase, where the ClO2 is removed from the decontamination area"