Body--Effects on

1981. "An epldemioiogic study of 198 persons exposed for 3 months to drinking water disinfected with chlorine dioxide was conducted in a rural village. A control population of 118 nonexposed persons was also studied. Pre-exposure hematologic and serum chemical parameters were compared with test results after 115 days of exposure. Chlorite ion levels In the water averaged approximately 5 ppm during the study period. Statistical analysis (ANOVA) of the data failed to identify any significant exposure-related effects. This study suggests that future evaluations of chlorine dioxide disinfection should be directed toward populations with potentially increased sensitivity to hemo-lytic agents"

The use of electrophysiological and molecular biology techniques has shed light on reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced impairment of surface and internal membranes that control cellular signaling...

****!!!!*** "Previous investigators have reported cardiovascular abnormalities in experimental animals exposed to chlorinated water. Plasma thyroxine (T4) levels were significantly decreased in pigeons fed a normal or high-cholesterol diet and drinking water containing these drinking water disinfectants at a concentration of 15 ppm for 3 months" "The factor(s) associated with the effect of these disinfectants on plasma T4 and cholesterol is not known. We suggest however that these effects are probably mediated by products formed when these disinfectants react with organic matter in the upper gastrointestinal tract."

1980

1980

"Chlorine dioxide (ClO2), an insecticidal agent by generating ROS, increased lipid peroxidation in a dose-dependent manner. However, the addition of vitamin E (an antioxidant) reduced the formation of lipid peroxidation. ClO2 treatment significantly reduced expression of Pi-iPLA2 but increased lipid peroxidation in larval fat body of P. interpunctella. Furthermore, larvae treated with dsRNA specific to Pi-iPLA2 were significantly susceptible to ClO2 treatment. These results suggest that Pi-iPLA2 plays a crucial role in repairing damaged fatty acids from phospholipids. Our results also suggest that ClO2 can elevate lipid peroxidation through inhibiting Pi-iPLA2 expression in addition to direct ROS (reactive oxygen species) production. "

****!!!!*** "the addition of an antioxidant, ****vitamin E,*** significantly attenuated the cytotoxicity of ClO2 in a dose-dependent manner." "Exposure to ClO2 gas significantly induced the gene expression of both SOD and Tpx. RNA interference of SOD or Tpx using specific double stranded RNAs significantly enhanced the lethality of P. interpunctella to ClO2 gas treatment as well as to the bacterial challenge." "These results suggest that ClO2 induces the production of insecticidal ROS [reactive oxygen species], which results in a fatal oxidative stress in P. interpunctella."

"Oxidative stress is the result of the imbalance between reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation and enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidants. Biomarkers of oxidative stress are relevant in the evaluation of the disease status and of the health-enhancing effects of antioxidants." "The clinical significance of biomarkers of oxidative stress in humans must come from a critical analysis of the markers that should give an overall index of redox status in particular conditions."

"Positive association was found between exposure of the mother to ClO2-treated water during pregnancy and prematurity of the newborn as assessed by the attending physician and by a greater weight loss after birth. The rates of jaundice, birth defects and fetal and neonatal mortality did not differ significantly between communities. Because of the limitations of the study design, the findings reported here should be considered suggestive rather than definitive. "

1989. "The statistical analysis (by simultaneous variance analysis and Scheffé test) indicated that there may be an association between infants with smaller body length and mothers who drank water treated with chlorine dioxide [adjusted odds radio (OR) = 2.0; 95% CI = 1.2-3.3] or sodium hypoclorite (adjusted OR = 2.3; 95% CI = 1.3-4.2) and between infants with smaller cranial circumference and mothers who drank water treated with chlorine dioxide (adjusted OR = 2.2; 95% CI = 1.4-3.9) or sodium hypochlorite (adjusted OR = 3.5; 95% CI = 2.1-8.5). The presence of neonatal jaundice is almost twice as likely (adjusted OR = 1.7; 95% CI = 1.1-3.1) in infants whose mothers drank water treated with chlorine dioxide."

****!!!**** 1982 "The primary products resulting from ClO2 disinfection of waters are chlorites (ClO2-) and chlorates (ClO3-). Studies in rats revealed that ClO2 is converted to chloride (Cl-), ClO2- and ClO3-. ClO2- and ClO3- are excreted as Cl-, ClO2- and Cl-, ClO2-, ClO3-, respectively. Radioactivity was rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract following the administration of 36ClO2 orally, and the half-life for the elimination of 36Cl from the rat was 44 hr, corresponding to a rate constant of 0.016/hr. After 72 hr, radioactivity was highest in plasma, followed by kidney, lung, and stomach. 36Cl in plasma reached a peak at 2 hr and 1 hr after oral administration of 36ClO2- and 36ClO3-, respectively. 36Cl excretion was greatest 24 hr after the administration of 36ClO3-, but in the case of 36ClO2-, the excretion probably represented saturation of the biotransformation and excretion pathway. A low activity in packed cells compared to plasma was detected in chlorate ingestion, rather than an even distribution in chlorite treatment. Chloroform determinations in rat blood after one year indicated that chloroform was significantly higher than control in the 100 and 1000 mg/l. ClO2 groups. However, no significant values were observed in the 1 or 10 mg/l. ClO2 and ClO2 metabolites groups. ClO2 and its metabolites are eliminated from the body more rapidly than chlorine, and they do not appear to increase trihalomethane concentrations at low dosages."

*****!!!**** 1979. "Studies in the rat indicated that the metabolites of ClO2 were Cl-, ClO-2, and ClO-b. At maximum absorption the percentage of ClO; formed in plasma from an initial oral dose of 10 mg/l 36ClO, was higher than from a 100 mg/l dose. The 36Cl concentration in washed packed cells indicated that 36Cl readily exchanges with chloride of saline."

1953. "Flour treated with chlorine dioxide has been fed to a variety of species of experimental animals without evidence of acute toxicity or abnormalities of any kind. (Reference to 1949 paper)"

Flour was treated with 30 ppm or 300 ppm chlorine dioxide. Rats preferred the taste of bread treated with chlorine dioxide. Growth was slowed in rats eating flour treated with chlorine dioxide.

1987. "These results indicated no clear evidence of a carcinogenic potential of sodium chlorite in B6C3F1 mice."

1982. *******!!!!!!!!****** "In drinking water has demonstrated alterations in hematologic parameters in all species tested. The effects were usually dose related and marked changes occurred only at the higher dosages (up to 1000 mg/l.)." "Treatment groups receiving ClO2, ClO2- or ClO3- showed alterations in erythrocyte morphology and osmotic fragility; at higher dosages mild hemolytic anemia occurred. An examination of blood glutathione content and RBC enzymes involving glutathione formation showed a dose-related diminution of glutathione in chlorine compound treated groups. The higher oxidative capacity of the chlorine compounds resulting in the decreased erythrocytic glutathione might well be the principal biochemical event leading to the other hematological alterations. More recent data show that ClO2, ClO2- and ClO3- alter the incorporation of 3H-thymidine into the nuclei of various organs of the rat. These data suggest the possibility of increased turnover cells of the gastrointestinal mucosa and inhibited DNA synthesis in several organs. In the latter category, most concern revolves around whether or not the apparent depression of DNA synthesis in the testes is associated with depressed spermatogenesis and reproductive toxicity in the male rat."

Alcide Allay gel, a highly effective germicidal compound, was evaluated for teratogenic potential in rabbits. Pregnant rabbits were administered 2 g/kg Allay gel (containing either of two concentrations of sodium chlorite as active ingredient) or placebo topically on days 6-18 of gestation. Moderate …

PRIME PubMed from Unbound Medicine

Under controlled laboratory conditions, the safety of daily ingestion of 5 ppm chlorine dioxide, chlorite and chlorate by normal healthy adult males has been established. To determine the effect upon potentially susceptible individuals, a parallel chronic human investigation was undertaken. Study su …

The carcinogenic activities of sodium chlorite in B6C3F1 mice were examined. Sodium chlorite was given at concentrations of 0 (control), 0.025% (low dose), or 0.05% (high dose) in the drinking water of 150 female and 150 male mice for 80 weeks, after which time the animals were returned to distilled …These results indicated no clear evidence of a carcinogenic potential of sodium chlorite in B6C3F1 mice.

Although NaClO2 was shown to be noncarcinogenic in rats, the results for mice were evaluated as inconclusive.

"ested for promoting and complete carcinogenic activities in skin carcinogenesis using female Sencar mice." "Potential promoting effect was suspected in sodium chlorite"

*** "A dose-dependent decrease in glutathione content and erythrocyte osmotic fragility occurred after incubation of whole blood with Alcide chlorine dioxide. Glutathione concentration and erythrocyte osmotic fragility approached the control values after 240 min of incubation with Alcide containing 1 mM NaClO2. The addition of exogenous glutathione (50 mg 100 ml-1) or glutathione reductase and NADPH to rat blood in the presence of Alcide returned erythrocyte osmotic fragility to control values. Treatment of rat blood with Alcide did not change glutathione reductase or glutathione peroxidase activities after 1 h of incubation. "

**** {Alcide is Sodium chlorite combined with lactic acid to form chlorine dioxide}

Alcide is a germicidal preparation which has been shown to kill a wide range of common pathogenic bacteria as well as fungi, in vitro. This preparation is composed of Part A and Part B which contains sodium chlorite (NaClO2) and lactic acid as the active ingredients, respectively. The two parts are combined to form chlorine dioxide.

Alcide, a liquid sterilizer, was evaluated for teratogenic potential in rats and mice. Sodium chlorite and lactic acid, the active ingredients of this compound, form chlorine dioxide when mixed. Pregnant rats and mice were administered 1 ml and 0.1 ml, respectively, of Alcide liquid by gavage on day …

Alcide gel is a germicidal agent which is highly effective in killing a wide range of bacteria and fungi in vitro within 1 min. Alcide gel consists of sodium chlorite and lactic acid, parts A and B, respectively. Chlorine dioxide is formed when sodium chlorite and lactic acid, the active ingredients …

Alcide sodium chlorite