Chemical & Biological Dynamics

"egardless of the food product, nearly all radioactive residue was present in edible tissues as chloride ions; the chlorite ion was present only in egg-rinse water. Small amounts (10% or less) of radioactivity were present as chlorate ions, which would be a useful marker compound for chlorine dioxide sanitation."

***!!!!*** "Formulations for the sustained release of chlorine dioxide (ClO2) gas were developed, and their gas-producing profiles and antimicrobial effects... were evaluated" "Sodium chlorite (NaClO2) and citric acid were used to generate ClO2 gas, and the generation rate and maximum ClO2 gas concentration were controlled using diatomaceous earth (DE) and calcium chloride (CaCl2). "

"Its efficacy is largely not affected by pH and organic matter and it does no react with nitrogen compounds to form chloramines. The most widely accepted antimicrobial mechanism of ClO2 is damage to protein synthesis and increased permeability of the outer cell membrane. ClO2 gas may be more effective for inactivation of foodborne pathogens than aqueous ClO2 due to its penetration ability. Also, ClO2 gas could be applied for microbial control during transportation and storage of food." "The specific objectives of this study were, (ⅰ) to investigate the effect of relative humidity, surface characteristics of samples, and temperature on the antimicrobial efficacy of ClO2 gas... on produce and food contact surfaces, (ⅱ) evaluate the antimicrobial effects of the combination treatment of ClO2 gas with ultraviolet (UV) radiation, aerosolized sanitizer, and dry heat against foodborne pathogens on produce and seeds, (ⅲ) develop portable sustained release formulation of ClO2 gas for field application." "Combined treatment of ClO2 gas (10 ppmv) and aerosolized PAA (80 ppm) for 20 min caused 5.36, 5.06, and 4.06 log reductions of E. coli O157:H7, S. Typhimurium, and L. monocytogenes, respectively."

*** Lists several studies on dynamics of CHLORINE DIOXIDE DECOMPOSITION. *** Includes "Distribution and Chemical Fate of 36Cl-Chlorine Dioxide Gas during the Fumigation of Tomatoes and Cantaloupe" AND "Chloroxyanion Residues in Cantaloupe and Tomatoes after Chlorine Dioxide Gas Sanitation" "laboratory illumination being the major influence on the composition of residues. Oxidized products of chlorine dioxide present in tank rinsewater from trial A represented a major amount of residue (95.3% of tank rinse residue), but for trial C (dark) the major residue was chloride (78.1% of tank rinse activity) with only 13.9% of the radioactivity being present as chlorate or perchlorate" "...even in the presence of water vapor..., light must be present to catalyze the formation of chlorate (and perchlorate)."

*****"[Note: Some statements about corrosion, reaction with phenols, Cl also released during some specific reactions, etc may have some inaccuracies] Like ozone and chlorine, chlorine dioxide is an oxidizing biocide and not a metabolic toxin. This means that chlorine dioxide kills microorganisms by disruption of the transport of nutrients across the cell wall, not by disruption of a metabolic process." "Unlike chlorine, Chlorine dioxide is effective at pH between 4 and 10. No dumping and filling with fresh water required;" "Chlorine dioxide can be used as a spray. All parts therefore, can easily be reached;" In scrubbers: "In scrubbers, Usually, a very low chlorine dioxide residual, around 0.2-ppm, is sufficient to ensure odour control." {includes effects on specific foods when rinsed}

*******!!!!*****!!!!**** "The ASC prepared by premixing highly concentrated reactants (in particular > 40%) followed by dilution (dilution after reaction, DAR) was more effective in inactivating foodborne pathogens, and it produced higher antimicrobial compound (Cl2 and ClO2) yields than the other procedures. " "Thus, food manufacturers or researchers could prepare an ASC solution with a much higher bactericidal activity using the DAR procedure, with smaller amounts of reactants in the final ASC solution."

{Powder capsule for generating Chlorine Dioxide. Includes recommended use in refrigerators.}

*****!!!!**** {This article only mentions chlorine dioxide effectiveness against SARS-CoV-1, not SARS-CoV-2, against which it has greater effectiveness} "The exposure of SARS-CoV-2 (7.8 of log10 (TCID50/ml) to 1:49 (~150 ppm) and 1:99 (~75 ppm) *household bleach* resulted in the virus titer being reduced below levels of detection after 5 min" "The aim of this review is to provide information, primarily to the food industry, regarding a range of biocides effective in eliminating or reducing the presence of coronaviruses from fomites, skin, oral/nasal mucosa, air, and food contact surfaces. As several EPA approved sanitizers against SARS-CoV-2 are commonly used by food processors, these compounds are primarily discussed as much of the industry already has them on site and is familiar with their application and use. Specifically, we focused on the effects of alcohols, povidone iodine, quaternary ammonium compounds, hydrogen peroxide, sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), peroxyacetic acid (PAA), chlorine dioxide, ozone, ultraviolet light, metals, and plant-based antimicrobials. This review highlights the differences in the resistance or susceptibility of different strains of coronaviruses, or similar viruses, to these antimicrobial agents."

{Also specifically refers to Sanova sanitizing product for food uses} "Sodium chlorite solution is made with sodium chloride crystals or flakes and water, and available at various concentrations, such as SANOVA® Base (25%) and Sanova® Antimicrobial Food Additive Base (25%) containing 20-50% by weight of sodium chlorite (NaClO2). While the chlorite ion (ClO2 –) is stable in aqueous solution, under acidic conditions— the acidifier can be any one of food-grade acids, chlorite forms chlorous acid (HClO2). Chlorous acid is unstable and dissociates back to chlorite ion. Other compounds like chlorine dioxide (ClO2) and chlorate also generated. Ultimately, chlorous acid degrades to chloride (Cl–). "

[Combinations affected lethality in presence of other materials.] Chlorine, ClO2, and a commercial raw fruit and vegetable sanitizer were evaluated for their effectiveness in killing vegetative cells and spores of Bacillus cereus and spores of Bacillus thuringiensis. The ultimate goal was to use one or both species as a potential surrogate(s) for Bacillus anthraci …

{ppm, time, pesticide & pathogen reduction levels} "chlorine dioxide gas was reported to successfully remove 35% to 60% pesticide residues such as azoxystrobin, tebuconazole, dimethomorph (Z), and dimethomorph (E) from table grapes" "The presence of unstable phosphoric acid ester linkage in organophosphorus pesticides make it more susceptible to oxidation, and it is easy to breakdown using ClO2"