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"purification process of purifying Philippine clams in the oxygenated state with 4 times of disinfected seawater...) was explored, and the water was changed once for 8 hours, and the purification time was 24 hours. The pilot test of the process can reduce the number of E. coli population in the Philippine Hazai intestine... and the sterilization rate reaches about 95%, the sand content is reduced from 65mg/100g to 23mg/100g, and the volatile salt-based nitrogen rises from 3.8mg/100g to 5.8mg/100g," "phenolic compounds denature proteins and make microorganisms inactive, and also different from chlorine biochlorination and inactivity. When it comes into contact with microorganisms, it releases new ecological oxygen and hypochlorous acid molecules and produces a powerful bactericidal and disinfection effect. This strong oxidation effect makes the amino acids in microorganisms oxidize and decompose, so as to inhibit their growth and kill them. Its residues water, trace chloride, carbon dioxide, organic sugar and other non-toxic and harmless substances." "According to the experimental results of Chen Youlin [2], the mass fraction of chlorine dioxide only needs to be 10× 10-6 action for 5 minutes to completely kill E. coli, mass fraction 10× 10-6 action to completely kill Staphylococcus aureus, mass fraction 100× 10-6 action 10min to kill spore bacteria, mass fraction 500× 10-6 for 2min to destroy hepatitis B virus (HBSAG); Chlorine dioxide can also have a special decomposition effect on cyanide, etc"

****!!!!****!!!!**** {Includes data table of studies of gas and liquid against specific pathogens on food} "ClO2 disinfects by oxidation through the one-electron transfer mechanism, resulting in a reduction to ClO2–...The inactivation may be reached by allowing permeability of the cell membrane by changing the configuration of lipids and protein which involve the oxidation of amino acids by the gas. The second option is due to the reaction with nucleic acid and/or protein structures... However, some research showed degradation in viral RNA, inducing genotoxicity or discontinuing replication of genome information." "At higher relative humidity, a greater reduction of pathogen population was reported. This might be explained due to the increment of the pores’ sizes in the bacteria due to swelling at high humidity, which allow penetration of the ClO2 molecule into the bacteria." "Gaseous ClO2 showed a negative impact on treated fruits and vegetables through enzymatic browning formation... is related to the deterioration of nutritional quality. However, additional treatments can be added to the gas exposure to inhibit browning..." "negative color change in spinach leaves, which occurred during storage after being exposed even to 50 ppm of gaseous ClO2. Also, treatments with higher concentrations may lead to bleaching of fruits and vegetables" "reaction rate was estimated to be... which is significantly higher than the reaction rate reported by previous researchers ... the chamber used here was stainless steel... likely increased the reaction with the walls, and created minor corrosion" "larger exposure surface area for the water in contact with the gas increased the overall decay rate" "some crevices in equipment could impact the effectiveness of the ClO2 gas treatment due to the time for gas to diffuse into the crevice" "the ClO2 gas concentration is surface area- and water volume-dependent" "Results showed an increase in the reaction rate due to water presence at different water volume and exposure surface area. After 7 days’ exposure at 3000 ppm of ClO2 gas, none of the selected plastics or elastomers showed a significance difference (p0.05) in the hardness value." "excitation wavelengths of ClO2 are near the ultraviolet and visible light... leads to dissociation into ClO + O or Cl + O2" " Further research can also be extended to determine the rate of ClO2 molecules dissolving into water, and the residuals form."

{At bottom, includes links to many highly valuable papers}

In this study, black peppercorns and cumin seeds were inoculated with a five-serotype cocktail of Salmonella or its surrogate Enterococcus faecium"

****!!!!**** "WHITE PAPERS, AND APPLICATION NOTES"

"the effect of UV-A and fluorescent lamp on chlorine dioxide gas degradation was observed. The degradation of gas under these conditions followed a first order reaction. In this research, gas degradation using a 40-Watt UV-A lamp was approximately four orders of magnitude larger than with a 34-Watt fluorescent lamp. In dark conditions, less than three percent degradation in gas was observed over a period of six hours.... In the same study, the effect of temperature on the degradation of chlorine dioxide gas was observed at 5° [However, ClO2 is a liquid at 5 degrees??], 23°, and 40°C. In all cases, the effect of temperature was negligible"

"E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus, S. Enteritidis and C. jejuni."

Chapter sections: Calculating Concentration of CDG. ClO2 as a Surface Sanitizer. ClO2 Use in the Produce Industry

2020. "Treatments of wastewater and fresh produce"

"applications in which soil residues are frequent." "One sanitizer was an acidified solution of dilute sodium chlorite at pH 2.7; the other sanitizer was dilute chlorine dioxide (about 15 ppm) in tap water. Stainless steel types 304 and 316 corroded rapidly when exposed to the acidified chlorite solution. Chlorine dioxide near neutral pH 7.2 was noncorrosive to both type 304 and 316 stainless steels at a concentration of 100 ppm during 10 d of continuous exposure. This concentration is well above the typical use Concentration of 15 ppm; typical use time span is 15 min." "chlorine dioxide is of equal bactericidal activ- ity to sodium hypochlorite at one-seventh the concentration of hypochlorite, when used for sanitation of poultry processing water"

"monitoring of FAC is critical to validate disinfection efficacy. In this study we found that chlorite-based sanitizers acquired a pink colour upon contact with BSA or broiler carcasses. This pink colour interfered with FAC monitoring by methods that measure oxidized N,N-diethyl-p-phenylenediamine absorbance between 513–550 nm. Alternatively, FAC levels of chlorite-based sanitizers could be monitored using the absorbance of 3,3′,5,5′-tetramethylbenzidine at 650 nm, which does not overlap with the acquired pink colour. These data provide valuable information for safety management of disinfection processes that use chlorite-based sanitizers."

"Significance and Impact of the Study: For practical applications of chlorine in food processing, monitoring of FAC is critical to validate disinfection efficacy. In this study we found that chlorite-based sanitizers acquired a pink colour upon contact with BSA or broiler carcasses. This pink colour interfered with FAC monitoring by methods that measure oxidized N,N-diethyl-p-phenylenediamine absorbance between 513–550 nm. Alternatively, FAC levels of chlorite-based sanitizers could be monitored using the absorbance of 3,30 ,5,50 -tetramethylbenzidine at 650 nm, which does not overlap with the acquired pink colour. These data provide valuable information for safety management of disinfection processes that use chlorite-based sanitizers."

"In contrast to its responses to hydrogen peroxide and paracetic acid, KatE1 was not the primary scavenger of chlorine dioxide in these V. parahaemolyticus strains."

"ProOxine®AH Now Claims Efficacy Against PED" "OXINE® Approved for Horticulture Applications... eliminates most microbial issues at grower facilities at doses as low as 1 ppm to 5 ppm." "Keeper® Technology Now Certified Organic" "anti-microbial agent for the Red Meat, Poultry and Post Harvest Industries" “The issuance of Organic Certification now allows the organic producer the same level of protection employed by traditional producers.” “The active component in Keeper is Acidified Sodium Chlorite (ASC) – a powerful antimicrobial with adequate residual effect. After its intended technical effect, ASC breaks down into table salt. This is the fundamental premise of Keeper® approval as an organic material,”

"applications in which soil residues are frequent." "One sanitizer was an acidified solution of dilute sodium chlorite at pH 2.7; the other sanitizer was dilute chlorine dioxide (about 15 ppm) in tap water. Stainless steel types 304 and 316 corroded rapidly when exposed to the acidified chlorite solution. Chlorine dioxide near neutral pH 7.2 was noncorrosive to both type 304 and 316 stainless steels at a concentration of 100 ppm during 10 d of continuous exposure. This concentration is well above the typical use Concentration of 15 ppm; typical use time span is 15 min."

****!!!!**** "Microbial analysis indicated that ASC reduced E. coli O157:H7 population by 2.2 log cycles over that of water wash, while the reduction from other sanitizers was about 1 log cycle. " " An increase in the ASC concentration enhanced the efficacy of the combined treatment of ASC and ultrasonication, especially at ASC concentrations of < 300 mg/L. Increasing the ultrasound treatment time from 0 to 4 min and AED from 0 to 500 W/L were both effective in increasing the effectiveness of the ASC and ultrasound combined treatments."

"Applying the dry [chlorine dioxide-generating] formulation directly to the surface of the crop increases the efficiency of the dry formulation for preventing disease caused by microorganisms when compared to prior methods that used the dry formulations to produce fumigation gases to combat the microorganisms."

Abstract Strawberries are highly sensitive to deterioration by microbial decay after harvest and Botrytis cinerea is one of the most common diseases that infect them. Previous work has reported successful extension of strawberry shelf life through the use of chlorine dioxide (ClO2) gas treatments. In this study, California strawberries purchased at retail stores were treated with continuously generated ClO2 gas over concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 5.0 mg/L for durations ranging from 7 to 1000 min to determine how ClO2 gas impacts fungal mortality and fruit quality as a function of treatment concentration, treatment duration, and ClO2 absorption by the fruit. Repeated measures and Gompertz models were used to infer on the efficacy of the ClO2 gas, and a novel method was used to quantify the ClO2 absorption by fresh produce. It was found that ClO2 gas treatments have minimal effect at delaying the onset or growth rate of Botrytis cinerea for treatments followed by incubation at 4 or 22 °C even when corrected for natural variability of Botrytis cinerea presence among batches of strawberries, indicating that treatments are not sufficient for shelf-life extension.

"application of 1‰ solution of stabilized liquid chlorine dioxide on some food-born related bacteria - E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus, S. Enteritidis and C. jejuni."

RESIDUES FROM CHLORINE DIOXIDE GAS TREATMENT, GENERATED BY DIFFERENT DELIVERY SYSTEMS, ON FRESH PRODUCE By

***** 2006 "ClO2 were effective against P. expansum spores (up to 5 log CFU and 4 log CFU reduction, respectively), but **addition of surfactants was not beneficial.** All solutions were less effective at 4C compared to 24C irrespective of the presence ofsurfactants."

***** "ClO2 at 10 μg ml−1 effectively reduced conidial germination of all decay fungi tested after treatment for 0·5 min. Chlorine dioxide only kills by contact, not systemically, and is effective only on exposed fungal propagules, such as those suspended in water or on the surface of fruit. It does not kill pathogens under the fruit skin or active infections. Chlorine dioxide can be difficult to use indoors because when a treated water stream is agitated or aerated, some of the ClO2 comes out of solution and enters the atmosphere. There is a permissible exposure level of 0·1 μg ml−1 in the air, but workers will respond to the odour before that level is reached. In USA, for this reason the recommended rate for indoor applications is μg ml−1 or less"

2020 "Results showed that the antimicrobial effect of ClO2 (g) significantly decreases as the aw level and ClO2 (g) concentration decrease." "The results of this study may be used to design ClO2 (g) treatment processes to inactivate L. monocytogenes in low-moisture foods."

"The effectiveness of steady-state levels of gaseous chlorine dioxide (ClO2) against Tulane virus (TV), a human norovirus surrogate, on berries was determined. The generated ClO2 was maintained at 1 mg/L inside a 269 L glove box to treat two 50 g batches of blueberries, raspberries, and blackberries, and two 100 g batches of strawberries that were immersion coated with TV. The standardized/normalized treatment concentrations of ClO2 ranging from 0.63 to 4.40 ppm-h/g berry were evaluated. When compared to untreated TV contaminated berries, log reductions of TV were in excess of 2.9 log PFU/g for all berry types and conditions tested, indicating that ClO2 was highly effective. In general, the efficacy of all ClO2 treatments on log reductions of TV on all berries was not significantly different (p

"Carcasses that were defeathered with the chorine dioxide treatment had lower numbers of Campylobacter and E. coli than control carcasses. Treated carcasses were also less likely to be positive for Salmonella. However, the chemical treatment did not have any affect on antibacterial resistance in either Campylobacter or Salmonella."