the results strongly suggest that although ClO2 and sodium hypochlorite are strong antiviral agents in absence of organic matter but in presence of organic matter, ClO2 is a more potent antiviral agent against SARS-CoV-2 than sodium hypochlorite. ... disinfectant Cleverin, the major disinfecting component of which is chlorine dioxide (ClO2)

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****!!!!****!!!!**** {List of their recommended specific chlorine dioxide concentrations and contact times for disinfection against plague/epidemic diseases}

**** (2020) " ClO2 is produced on site in concentrations of... 8 to 12 thousand parts per million (ppm)" "Fortunately, ClO2 gas is self-alerting presenting a faint odor of bleach or chlorine at 0.1 ppm levels or less, thus necessitating area evacuation or use of respiratory protection. Based on ERPG data, such low-level exposure to ClO2 gas is not life-threatening. In fact, more recent studies indicate that ClO2 gas at low levels, well below the TWA17 of 0.1 ppm, could be useful as an antimicrobial in the presence of humans to mitigate and/ or prevent viral infection and possibly other related respiratory tract infections... ClO2 gas could be used in places such as hospitals, clinics, offices, hotels, schools and airport buildings without interrupting normal activities."

****!!!!****!!!!****!!!! "Novel Technology to Reduce Risk of Viral Transmission in Enclosed Occupied Environments and Room Disinfection in Unoccupied Spaces, METSS Corporation: ... development of a novel chlorine dioxide (ClO2) gas dispersion system under a current EPA-sponsored Phase II SBIR project...). The system design offers a safe and effective means to rapidly generate ClO2 vapor for on-site room decontamination in hospital and non-hospital settings. This technology is intended to meet the demands of health care markets committed to decontaminate porous materials and sensitive equipment in rooms or vehicles used for care or transport of Ebola-exposed patients... current COVID-19 pandemic has demonstrated a clear need for technologies aimed at occupied spaces to reduce or prevent the spread of transmissible diseases through air or contact with surfaces contaminated with infectious microdroplets." "y. During repeated trials, METSS demonstrated the efficacy of low level ClO2 against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Additional efficacy testing was performed using MS2 (non-enveloped) and Phi6 bacteriophage (enveloped) as surrogates to SARS-CoV-2 and other human viruses...." "Decontamination of Covid-19 Vaccine Production Facility: ...a study completed within the United States Pharmaceutical Industry alongside ClorDiSys Solutions, Inc established evidence that chlorine dioxide gas has the capacity to inactivate beta-lactams" "t to achieve a 3-log reduction of beta-lactams, an inactivation cycle consisting of a 30-minute conditioning phase at 75% relative humidity, followed by an exposure to chlorine dioxide gas of at least 7,240 ppm-hours, is required. Chlorine dioxide destroys the beta-lactam ring and inactivates the compound, in similar fashion to the manner in which penicillin-resistant organisms act" "exposing the target beta-lactam to Chlorine dioxide gas at a concentration of 5mg/L" "Outdoor Systems Trial Using Full-Scale Agricultural Equipment for Wide Area Decontamination of Bacillus anthracis Surrogate Spores": ...we exploited state-of-the-art spray application technologies and formulation chemistry used in the agricultural industry, spore germination techniques and a novel decontaminant based on the targeted release of chlorine dioxide. Spores of B. thuringiensis HD-1 cry- were employed as a surrogate for virulent B. anthracis. However, key performance attributes were validated against a range of virulent B. anthracis. Preferred formulations for decontamination were developed through laboratory, environmental chamber, windtunnel and finally full-scale outdoor trials. During outdoor trials we achieved all essential success criteria on all surface types (4-Log10 reduction on wood, steel and cement). Results using steel surfaces approached that required for desirable performance (6-Log10 reduction). Significant loss of spore viability was found by environmental exposure alone (up to 3-Log10 over 72 h). However, active decontamination was more effective (up to a further 3.6-Log10 reduction in viable spores). Pre-germination before decontamination with chlorine dioxide was not found to have a benefit." "Use of Innovative Packaging to Facilitate On-Site Treatment of Waste from a Bacillus anthracis Release Incident: ...These semi-permeable materials would allow gaseous fumigants such as chlorine dioxide (ClO2) to pass into the bags but would not allow residual spores to penetrate the walls of the bags and exit into the atmosphere. Testing is currently occurring... to assess the ability of the materials to allow ClO2 to penetrate through the bag material and... to provide sufficient concentration-time exposure of the waste inside the permeation chamber"

****!!!!**** "Influenza viruses were reduced by 99.9% by 0.5–1.0 mg/L of ClO2 in less than 5 min. Higher concentration (20 mg/L) eliminated SARS-CoV-2 from sewage. ClO2 concentrations from 0.2 to 1.0 mg/L ensured at least a 99% viral reduction of AD40, HAV, Coxsackie B5 virus, and other enteric viruses in less than 30 min. Considering bloodborne viruses, 30 mg/L of ClO2 can eliminate them in 5 min. Bloodborne viruses (HIV-1, HCV, and HBV) may be completely eliminated from medical devices and human fluids after a treatment with 30 mg/L of ClO2 for 30 min. In conclusion, ClO2 is a versatile virucidal agent suitable for different environmental matrices."

The emergence of severe acute respiratory disease (SARS-CoV-2) variants that cause coronavirus disease is of global concern. Severe acute respiratory disease variants of concern (VOC) exhibiting greater transmissibility, and potentially increased risk ...

We provide here a general view on the interactions of surfactants with viruses, with a particular emphasis on how such interactions can be controlled and employed for inhibiting the infectivity of enveloped viruses, including coronaviruses."

(2021) ****!!!!**** "Cleverin (Taiko Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd, Osaka, Japan) is a mixture of 500 ppm ClO2, 17,900 ppm sodium chlorite, 3300 ppm decaglycerol monolaurate, and 80 ppm silicone"

****!!!!*** "This narrative synthesis aimed to highlight the versatility and suitability of ClO2 in different settings (mostly for waters) and against different viral agents. It may be clear that ClO2 is not a therapeutic product. It cannot be used for healing human or animal tissues, with the exception of skin and mucosa antisepsis." "Bloodborne viruses (HIV-1, HCV, and HBV) may be completely eliminated from medical devices and human fluids after a treatment with 30 mg/L of ClO2 for 30 min."

****!!!!**** (2021) "Matching transformation system (MA-T) is an on-demand aqueous chlorine dioxide solution"

"Facility 2 was cleaned and disinfected with a chlorine dioxide based solution (Clidox-s, Pharmacal Research Laboratories Inc.,) and all the equipment was autoclaved whenever possible. Two weeks later, facility 2 was repopulated without any further sanitation treatment and no evidence of hyperkeratotic dermatitis was observed in the following months. The reason for the reappearance of the disease in facility 1 [the facility not treated with chlorine dioxide] is unknown. Surprisingly the disease reappeared in the facility where sanitation procedures had been more accurate."

****!!!! "The inactivation efficiencies vary greatly among different virus species. The inactivation rates for different serotypes within a family of viruses can differ by over 284%. Generally, to achieve a 4-log removal, the exposure doses, also being referred to as Ct values (mutiplying the concentration of ClO2 and contact time) vary in the range of 0.06–10 mg L−1 min. Inactivation kinetics of viruses show two phases: an initial rapid inactivation phase followed by a tailing phase. Inactivation rates of viruses increase as pH or temperature increases, but show different trends with increasing concentrations of dissolved organic matter (DOM). Both damages in viral proteins and in the 5′ noncoding region within the genome contribute to virus inactivation upon ClO2 disinfection."

"We evaluated the efficacies of formulated microbicidal actives against alpha- and beta-coronaviruses, including SARS-CoV-2. The coronaviruses SARS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2, human coronavirus 229E, murine hepatitis virus-1, or MERS-CoV were deposited on prototypic HITES or spiked into liquid matrices along with organic soil loads. Alcohol-, quaternary ammonium compound-, hydrochloric acid-, organic acid-, p-chloro-m-xylenol-, and sodium hypochlorite-based microbicidal formulations were evaluated per ASTM International and EN standard methodologies. All evaluated formulated microbicides inactivated SARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses in suspension or on prototypic HITES. Virucidal efficacies (≥ 3 to ≥ 6 log10 reduction) were displayed within 30 s to 5 min."

"virucidal effects of disinfectants by adding 15 μL of SARS-CoV-2 culture... to 135 μL of various disinfectants at working concentration ... With the exception of a 5-min incubation with hand soap, no infectious virus could be detected after a 5-min incubation at room temperature (22°C). Additionally, we also found that SARS-CoV-2 is extremely stable in a wide range of pH values at room temperature ... Overall, SARS-CoV-2 can be highly stable in a favourable environment,4 but it is also susceptible to standard disinfection method"

****!!!!!*** {Chart of various disinfectants, hand sanitizers, etc directly against SARS-CoV-2}

****!!!!****!!!!*** 2020. "reaction rate constants of ClO_2 with tryptophan residues in five heptapeptides and four proteins using stopped-flow or competition kinetic method.Each heptapeptide and protein contain only one tryptophan residue and the reactivity of tryptophan residue with ClO_2 was lower than that of free tryptophan (3.88×10~4 (mol/L)~(-1) sec~(-1) at pH 7.0).The neighboring amino acid residues affected the reaction rates through promoting inter-peptide aggregation,changing electron density,shifting pK_a values or inducing electron transfer via redox reactions.A single amino acid residue difference in oligopeptides can make the reaction rate constants differ by over 60%(e.g.3.01×10~4 (mol/L)~(-1) sec~(-1) for DDDWNDD and 1.85×10~4 (mol/L)~(-1) sec~(-1)for DDDWDDD at pH 7.0 (D:aspartic acid,W:tryptophan,N:asparagine)).The reaction rates of tryptophan-containing oligopeptides were also highly pH-dependent with higher reactivity for deprotonated tryptophan than the neutral specie.Tryptophan residues in proteins spanned a 4-fold range reactivity toward ClO_2 (i.e.0.84×10~4 (mol/L)~(-1) sec~(-1) for ribonuclease T1 and 3.21×10~4 (mol/L)~(-1) sec~(-1) for melittin at pH 7.0) with accessibility to the oxidant as the determinating factor.The local environment surrounding the tryptophan residue in proteins can also accelerate the reaction rates by increasing the electron density of the indole ring of tryptophan or inhibit the reaction rates by inducing electron transfer reactions."

****!!!!**** 2010. "This paper introduces the application examples of the non-activated Chijie chlorine dioxide disinfectants and other products of Shenzhen Roach Environmental Protection Company during the Wenchuan earthquake at Shenyang Military District Field Hospital and the first hospital affiliated with Fujian Medical University during influenza A(H1N1)."

****!!!!!**** {from Chinese database} "the application examples of the non-activated Chijie chlorine dioxide disinfectants and other products of Shenzhen Roach Environmental Protection Company during the Wenchuan earthquake at Shenyang Military District Field Hospital and the first hospital affiliated with Fujian Medical University during influenza A(H1N1)."

****!!!!***!!!!***!!!!** "Spike protein was first mixed with various concentrations of CD... at room temperature for 5 min." "CD at 0.25 mmol/L or 0.5 mmol/L was effective in inactivating the binding of the spike protein to ACE2.. However, CD was not effective at 0.1 mmol/L concentration. The result strongly suggests that CD in sufficient cnocentration is effective in inactivating the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus and thus preventing its binding to human cells."

****!!!!**** "we challenged the hypothesis that ClO2 decreases the viral load and virus-induced mortality in a vertebrate model. For this, we determined viral load, virus-induced lesions and mortality in 10-day old chick embryos" " viral titres were 2.4-fold lower and mortality was reduced by half in infected embryos that were treated with ClO2." " Lesions typical of IBV infections were observed in all inoculated embryos, but severity tended to be significantly lower in ClO2-treated embryos. We found no gross or microscopic evidence of toxicity caused by ClO2 at the doses used herein. Our study shows that ClO2 could be a safe and viable way of treating and mitigating the effects of avian coronavirus infections, and raises the possibility that similar effects could be observed in other organisms." The authors have declared no competing interest.

"Currently, sodium chlorite is used on a large scale in the health care institutions worldwide as sodium chlorite solution is given to the patients affected by coronavirus for gargling. Moreover, sodium chlorite is also used as a disinfectant to sanitize the hospital surfaces. Due to the above mentioned reasons the demand for sodium chlorite is predicted to grow amidst the COVID-19 crisis."

****!!!!****!!!!*** (2020) "ClO2 gas is easy decomposed under sun light so there is little tendency to form organochlorine by-products (Karsa, 2007)."

****!!!!****** "Results demonstrate Tristel chlorine dioxide completely inactivates SARS-CoV-2 in 30 seconds in the presence of soiling in accordance with EN 14476:2013+A2:2019, at a concentration of 20 parts per million (ppm)."****!!!!*** {Tristel Chlorine Dioxide effectiveness against Coronaviruses in wipes, sprays, & foam products}

CHLORINE DIOXIDE FOR HOUSEHOLD USES

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{Includes drawbacks of sodium hypochlorite.} "Otherwise, use products that are approved by the EPA for use against the virus that causes COVID-19 **and that are suitable for porous surfaces.**"

*****!!!!**** {This article only mentions chlorine dioxide effectiveness against SARS-CoV-1, not SARS-CoV-2, against which it has greater effectiveness} "The exposure of SARS-CoV-2 (7.8 of log10 (TCID50/ml) to 1:49 (~150 ppm) and 1:99 (~75 ppm) *household bleach* resulted in the virus titer being reduced below levels of detection after 5 min" "The aim of this review is to provide information, primarily to the food industry, regarding a range of biocides effective in eliminating or reducing the presence of coronaviruses from fomites, skin, oral/nasal mucosa, air, and food contact surfaces. As several EPA approved sanitizers against SARS-CoV-2 are commonly used by food processors, these compounds are primarily discussed as much of the industry already has them on site and is familiar with their application and use. Specifically, we focused on the effects of alcohols, povidone iodine, quaternary ammonium compounds, hydrogen peroxide, sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), peroxyacetic acid (PAA), chlorine dioxide, ozone, ultraviolet light, metals, and plant-based antimicrobials. This review highlights the differences in the resistance or susceptibility of different strains of coronaviruses, or similar viruses, to these antimicrobial agents."