"Spores of B. subtilis treated with hypochlorite or chlorine dioxide did not accumulate damage to their DNA, as spores with or without the two major DNA protective α/β-type small, acid soluble spore proteins exhibited similar sensitivity to these chemicals; these agents also did not cause spore mutagenesis and their efficacy in spore killing was not increased by the absence of a major DNA repair pathway. Spore killing by these two chemicals was greatly increased if spores were first chemically decoated or if spores carried a mutation in a gene encoding a protein essential for assembly of many spore coat proteins. Spores prepared at a higher temperature were also much more resistant to these agents. Neither hypochlorite nor chlorine dioxide treatment caused release of the spore core's large depot of dipicolinic acid (DPA), but hypochlorite- and chlorine dioxide-treated spores much more readily released DPA upon a subsequent normally sub-lethal heat treatment than did untreated spores." "Hypochlorite and chlorine dioxide do not kill B. subtilis spores by DNA damage, and a major factor in spore resistance to these agents appears to be the spore coat. ...While chlorine dioxide-killed spores can undergo the initial steps in spore germination, these germinated spores can go no further in this process probably because of some type of membrane damage."

***** "test rig working in a flow-through mode similar to the disinfection procedures in waterworks, but under tightly defined conditions, including very short contact times. To quantify the influence of DOC, temperature and pH on the efficacy of two standard disinfectants, chlorine and chlorine dioxide, simulated use tests were systematically performed. This test rig enabled quantitative comparison of the reduction of four test organisms, two viruses and two bacteria, in response to disinfection. Chlorine was substantially more effective against Enterococcus faecium than chlorine dioxide whereas the latter was more effective against the bacteriophage MS2, especially at pH values of >7.5 at which chlorine efficacies already decline. Contrary to expectation, ***bacteria were not generally reduced more quickly than viruses.*** Overall, the results confirm a high efficacy of chlorine and chlorine dioxide, validating them as standard disinfectants for assessing the efficacy of new disinfectants"

**** {M. avium in this paper is called "resistant" to chlorine dioxide, but doesn't appear to be described as "developing resistance" as a result of exposure.} "This study documents the heretofore suspected disinfectant resistance of M. avium... the CT99.9% values of chlorine dioxide and ozone for the M. avium strains were at least 100- and 50-fold greater (respectively) than those for the E. coli strain. In agreement with other studies (4), chlorine dioxide was a better mycobacterial disinfectant than chlorine at equal concentrations."

"Facility 2 was cleaned and disinfected with a chlorine dioxide based solution (Clidox-s, Pharmacal Research Laboratories Inc.,) and all the equipment was autoclaved whenever possible. Two weeks later, facility 2 was repopulated without any further sanitation treatment and no evidence of hyperkeratotic dermatitis was observed in the following months. The reason for the reappearance of the disease in facility 1 [the facility not treated with chlorine dioxide] is unknown. Surprisingly the disease reappeared in the facility where sanitation procedures had been more accurate."

Chlorine Dioxide has been used in trials studying the treatment of Halitosis.

"Sodium chlorite: A new antiseptic tor the leather industry" "New method for preventing bacterial damage on hides. Advantages of sodium chlorite."

{Water treatment, contact lens solution, etc} Contact Lens Solution: "(Regard™) using a combination of sodium chlorite (NaClO2; used to disinfect mains water) and trace amounts (100 ppm) of hydrogen peroxide (Atkins 2004). The peroxide stabilises the inherently unstable chlorine dioxide (ClO2) generated, and the combination is said to be effective against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, fungi and yeasts. Decomposition products are sodium chloride, water and oxygen. When lenses are removed from solution, the residual sodium chlorite decomposes readily into sodium chloride and oxygen. " "It is a powerful oxidant that disrupts protein synthesis, making it an efficient antimicrobial. However, penetration of biofilms can be challenging and chlorine dioxide can take months to achieve microbial control, can corrode pipework and readily decomposes, particularly in hot water, though higher concentrations can be used in the hot water supply.130,133,134 Concentrations of 0.5 mg/l are effective against planktonic and sessile Legionella in hot water systems. However, The Drinking Water Inspectorate advises a maximum of 0.5 mg/l chlorine dioxide in drinking water "

"(PREFACE: While the author is not a chemist he has worked extensively for years with the manufacture of sodium chlorite solutions" " The higher oxidation capacity means that Chlorine Dioxide will remove 5 electrons from the target, whereas chlorine can only remove 2. Chlorine will bind to a pathogen, and other chemicals and compunds that may be present. Chlorine DIoxide being more selective, will not bind with other compounds. Because of this capacity, Chlorine Dioxide is more efficient than Chlorine, Ozone, or Hypochlorus Acid when used as a disinfectant." " Bacteria is killed through the oxidation process mentioned above. The chloride dioxide steals five electrons from the amino acid of the targeted pathogen. The amino acid becomes unable to produce the proteins necessary to maintaining the cell wall. The cell wall collapses and the pathogen dies. Viruses are killed by the reaction of Chlorine DIoxide to peptone. Peptone is vital to the protein formation of the virus. It becomes unable to function, thus "starving" the virus. Pathogens can't build a resistance to Chlorine Dioxide. Even so called "Superbugs" that are resistant to antibiotics have no defense. Chlorine dioxide attacks these pathogens at the molecular level, not through poisoning."

***** 2006 "ClO2 were effective against P. expansum spores (up to 5 log CFU and 4 log CFU reduction, respectively), but **addition of surfactants was not beneficial.** All solutions were less effective at 4C compared to 24C irrespective of the presence ofsurfactants."

"Only Globalex tablets produce ClO2 only"

****!!!!*** "Both chlorine dioxide and iodine reacted with the capsid proteins of poliovirus and changed the pI from pH 7.0 to pH 5.8. However, the mechanisms of inactivation of poliovirus by chlorine dioxide and iodine were found to differ. Iodine inactivated viruses by impairing their ability to adsorb to HeLa cells, whereas chlorine dioxide-inactivated viruses showed a reduced incorporation of [14C]uridine into new viral RNA. We concluded, then, that chlorine dioxide inactivated poliovirus by reacting with the viral RNA and impairing the ability of the viral genome to act as a template for RNA synthesis."

***** "ClO2 at 10 μg ml−1 effectively reduced conidial germination of all decay fungi tested after treatment for 0·5 min. Chlorine dioxide only kills by contact, not systemically, and is effective only on exposed fungal propagules, such as those suspended in water or on the surface of fruit. It does not kill pathogens under the fruit skin or active infections. Chlorine dioxide can be difficult to use indoors because when a treated water stream is agitated or aerated, some of the ClO2 comes out of solution and enters the atmosphere. There is a permissible exposure level of 0·1 μg ml−1 in the air, but workers will respond to the odour before that level is reached. In USA, for this reason the recommended rate for indoor applications is μg ml−1 or less"

"The inactivation mechanisms were explored by analyzing the leakage of intracellular substances, the increase in extracellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP), deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and proteins as well as the changes in spore morphology. The kinetics of inactivation by chlorine dioxide fitted the Chick-Watson model, and different fungal species showed different resistance to chlorine dioxide inactivation, which was in the following order: Cladosporium sp.>Trichoderma sp. >Penicillium sp., which are much more resistant than Escherichia coli." "Regarding the three genera of fungal spores used in this study, chlorine dioxide was more effective at inactivation of fungal spores than chlorine." "The effect of disinfectant concentration and temperature was positive, and the impact of pH levels (6.0 and 7.0) was insignificant, whereas the influence of water matrices on the inactivation efficiency was negative. The increased concentration of characteristic extracellular substances and changes of spore morphology were observed after inactivation with chlorine dioxide and were due to cell wall and cell membrane damage in fungal spores, causing the leakage of intracellular substances and death of a fungal spore."

{Unsure whether study included chlorine dioxide?} "viability assessment methods of esterase activities and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) were optimized, and the effects of chlorine-based disinfectants on fungal spores were evaluated by flow cytometry (FCM) and plating."

2020 "Results showed that the antimicrobial effect of ClO2 (g) significantly decreases as the aw level and ClO2 (g) concentration decrease." "The results of this study may be used to design ClO2 (g) treatment processes to inactivate L. monocytogenes in low-moisture foods."

"The effectiveness of steady-state levels of gaseous chlorine dioxide (ClO2) against Tulane virus (TV), a human norovirus surrogate, on berries was determined. The generated ClO2 was maintained at 1 mg/L inside a 269 L glove box to treat two 50 g batches of blueberries, raspberries, and blackberries, and two 100 g batches of strawberries that were immersion coated with TV. The standardized/normalized treatment concentrations of ClO2 ranging from 0.63 to 4.40 ppm-h/g berry were evaluated. When compared to untreated TV contaminated berries, log reductions of TV were in excess of 2.9 log PFU/g for all berry types and conditions tested, indicating that ClO2 was highly effective. In general, the efficacy of all ClO2 treatments on log reductions of TV on all berries was not significantly different (p

Aims: To model survival curves of Dothiorella gregaria Sacc. and Fusarium tricinctum (Corda) Sacc. spores inoculated on fresh chestnut kernel exposed to aqueous chlorine dioxide (ClO2). Methods and ...

"This paper proposes that chlorine dioxide (ClO2) should be considered as an alternative to common antibiotics. ClO2 disinfects via oxidation and is highly selective due to its one‐electron transfer mechanisms." "...indicates that ClO2 is as effective as phenol in inhibiting bacterial growth." "In part two, ClO2 was found to be less effective than peniciliin against the three opportunistic pathogens. These results may be erroneous, however..."

****!!!! "The inactivation efficiencies vary greatly among different virus species. The inactivation rates for different serotypes within a family of viruses can differ by over 284%. Generally, to achieve a 4-log removal, the exposure doses, also being referred to as Ct values (mutiplying the concentration of ClO2 and contact time) vary in the range of 0.06–10 mg L−1 min. Inactivation kinetics of viruses show two phases: an initial rapid inactivation phase followed by a tailing phase. Inactivation rates of viruses increase as pH or temperature increases, but show different trends with increasing concentrations of dissolved organic matter (DOM). Both damages in viral proteins and in the 5′ noncoding region within the genome contribute to virus inactivation upon ClO2 disinfection."

****!!!!**** 1967 {This is 1 of at least 3 papers that derived differing theories on dynamics of E. coli after chlorine dioxide treatment} "Survival data are presented for a fecal strain of Escherichia coli exposed to three concentrations of chlorine dioxide at four temperatures... Initial experiments support the thesis that the mechanism of chlorine dioxide kill occurs via disruption of protein synthesis."

1965 "We found chlorine dioxide to be a more effective disinfectant than chlorine in sewage effluent at pH 8.5. Chlorine dioxide was also found to be a more stable bactericide in relation to pH in the range studied."

The present invention provides for a stabilized solution containing a halogen containing compound which is effective as a sterilizing or disinfecting agent, and a stabilizing agent which suppresses the chemical dissociation of the halogen compound such that the sterilizing capability of the solution is maintained for extended periods of time relative to the solution without the stabilizing agent. The halogen containing compound is selected from the group consisting of chlorine dioxide, bromine oxide, bromine chloride, monochloroamine, bromic acid, iodine monochloride, iodine trichloride and iodine monobromide. The stabilizing agent is a compound having at least one accessible sulphur containing group selected from the group consisting of cyclamic acid, dimethyl sulphoxide, glyoxyl sodium bisulphite, potassium sorbate, sodium cyclamate, sodium metabisulphite, sodium oxalate, sodium sulphite, sodium thiosulphate and thioacetamide. Processes and kits for sterilizing or disinfecting water and objects utilizing the stabilized solutions are also provided by the present invention.

There is disclosed, in one aspect, chlorous acid generating compositions useful for disinfecting substrates

****!!!!**** "activated with material provided by BCI Inc., which included phosphoric acid and a surfactant." "12-14 ppm free chlorine dioxide" [Note: Oxine also contains other active oxychlorine species] "Viable cell counts were reduced by more than 99.99% after 60 seconds" "These are significant reductions, especially since the viable counts are primarily from fungal spores rather than vegetative cells."

"Spores of Mucor piriformis were killed after a 4-min exposureat 1 mg ClO2 ml-1 or 30 sec exposure at 3 mg ClO2 ml-1,"

****!!!!*** "ule type that potentially had low sensitivity to ClO2. The information generated from this research indicates whether a narrow or wide range in rate of ClO2 is needed for efficacy against different fungal propagules as a result of the interactions of water properties (e.g., pH and water hardness) that vary with the source (e.g., ponds, wells, municipal water, and recirculating systems), in combination with the presence of nutrient leachates that collect in catchment ponds and ebb-and-flow systems" " a high reduction in viable propagules resulted when conidia or sporangiospores of Botrytis cinerea, Penicillium expansum, Mucor piriformis, and Cryptosporiopsis perennans... These papers demonstrated that concentration of ClO2 varies with time, with an equal mortality of propagules obtained at lower concentrations of ClO2 by lengthening the duration of exposure. " "A higher concentration of ClO2 was required at pH 8 than at pH 5 to achieve a lethal dose resulting in 50% mortality of spores (LD50). The addition of the divalent metal ion solution required an increase in ClO2 concentration to maintain a LD50. When combined with the nitrogen and hard water solution, the divalent metal ion solution placed a higher demand on ClO2 at pH 5 and a lower demand on ClO2 at pH 8,"