"Chlorine dioxide foam activating agents (acid solutions combined with surfactants, scale sequestrants, lubricants, detergent salts, and/or corrosion inhibitors)" **********"Sodium Chlorite is related to available chlorine dioxide by the ratio of molecular weights (67.45/90.45). For example: 87.8 ppm NaClO2 = 87.8x (67.45/90.45) ppm ClO2

{References to efficacy studies}

{Significant info on Chlorine Dioxide use, particularly against anthrax} "1994 study by Roberts and Reymond wherein vitro tests on Mucor piriformis, Botrytis cinerea, Penicillium expansum, and Cryptosporiopsis perennans were conducted. Conidial suspensions of each pathogen were pipetted into test tubes containing ClO2 at concentrations of 1, 3, and 5 mg/l. Samples were drawn at 30 second intervals and the number of viable colony forming units/ml (CFU) was determined. The resultsof the tests are presented in Table 3.2-7."

2020. ***!!!!**** {Includes specific reference to Chlorine Dioxide} "We show that antimicrobial treatment can reduce the level of competition and therefore cause a subset of species to bloom. The result is a lower percentage inhibition of these species and increased tolerance. In addition, we show that the presence of competing species can also directly enhance the inherent tolerance of microbes to antimicrobial treatment, either because species protect each other or because they induce specific tolerance phenotypes as a response to competitors (i.e. competition sensing)... The dominance of competitive interactions is central to the enhanced antimicrobial tolerance of the multispecies biofilms and that the activity of antimicrobials against multispecies biofilms cannot be predicted based on their effect against mono-cultures.

"The inhibition of the protein synthesis has been pointed out by Benarde et al. (1967), by using chlorine dioxide, and by Haas and Englebrecht (1980), who used free chlorine. At higher doses, ozone modifies the structure of nucleic acids." "The second type of disinfection mechanism focuses on the effect of chlorine dioxide on physiological functions. Although it has been suggested that the primary mechanism was the disruption of protein synthesis (Benarde et al., 1967), later studies reported that this might not be the primary inactivation mechanism (US EPA, 1999). As mentioned before, a more recent study reported that chlorine dioxide disrupted the permeability of the outer membrane (Aieta and Berg, 1986). ..."

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The bacterial virus f2 was inactivated by chlorine dioxide at acidic, neutral, and alkaline pH values. The rate of inactivation increased with increasing pH. Chlorine dioxide disproportionation products, chlorite and chlorate, were not active disinfectants. As chlorine dioxide solutions were degraded under alkaline conditions, they displayed reduced viricidal effectiveness, thereby confirming the chlorine dioxide free radical as the active disinfecting species.

To the best of our knowledge, there was little information available on pathogen removal using low level disinfectant followed by free chlorine in sequential disinfection (SD). This study investigated Escherichia coli inactivation by four types of disinfection: single step disinfection (SSD), SD, tr …

Abstract. Chlorine, chlorine dioxide (ClO2), and a commercial raw fruit and vegetable sanitizer (Fit powder) were evaluated for their effectiveness in killing v

"contacting the object with chlorine dioxide gas while exposing the object to less than 1000 lux of light"

1981

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1964

Chlorine dioxide reacts with electron-rich moieties of NOM, such as phenols, to form...

**** Very valuable chlorine dioxide studies

"The aim of this review is to provide information, primarily to the food industry, regarding a range of biocides (including chlorine dioxide) effective in eliminating or reducing the presence of coronaviruses from fomites, skin, oral/nasal mucosa, air, and food contact surfaces. As several EPA approved sanitizers against SARS-CoV-2 are commonly used by food processors, these compounds are primarily discussed as much of the industry already has them on site and is familiar with their application and use... This review highlights the differences in the resistance or susceptibility of different strains of coronaviruses, or similar viruses, to these antimicrobial agents."

*****!!!!***** {Links to other valuable articles}

****!!!!***!!!!** "This study investigated the kinetics and mechanism of chlorine dioxide (ClO2) inactivation of a Gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli (ATCC 35218) in oxidant demand free (ODF) water in detail as a function of disinfectant concentration (0.5-5.0 mg/L), water pH (6.5-8.5), temperature variations (4-37°C) and bacterial density (105-107 cfu/mL). The effects of ClO2 on bacterial cell morphology, outer membrane permeability, cytoplasmic membrane disruption and intracellular enzymatic activity were also studied to elucidate the mechanism of action on the cells. Increasing temperature and disinfectant concentration were proportional to the rate of cell killing, but efficacy was found to be significantly subdued at 0.5 mg/L and less dependent on the bacterial density. The bactericidal efficiency was higher at alkaline pH of 8 or above as compared to neutral and slightly acidic pH of 7 and 6.5 respectively. The disinfection kinetic curves followed a biphasic pattern of rapid inactivation within the initial 2 min which were followed by a tailing even in the presence of residual biocide. The curves were adequately described by the Cavg Hom model. Transmission Electron Microscopy images of the bacteria cells exposed to lethal concentrations of ClO2 indicated very little observable morphological damage to the outer membranes of the cells. ClO2 however was found to increase the permeability of the outer and cytoplasmic membranes leading to the leakage of membrane components such as 260 nm absorbing materials and inhibiting the activity of the intracellular enzyme β-D-galactosidase. It is suggested that the disruption of the cytoplasmic membrane and subsequent efflux of intracellular components result in the inactivation of the Gram-negative bacteria. "

Purogene, a stabilized aqueous solution of chlorine dioxide (ClO2) was examined using bacteria of concern to public health. The organisms tested were: Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Yersinia enterocolitica, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes Group … "Varying the pH of Purogene from 3.5 to 8.6 (pH of Purogene is 8.6)" *****"Purogene was most efficacious at the lowest pH tested (pH 3.5). ****as chlorine dioxide solutions were reduced to chlorite (which predominates at pH 8.6), their bacteriocidal efficacy was reduced, suggesting free chlorine dioxide as the active disinfecting species. "

2013 ***!!!!*** "Tailing occurs even at constant ClO2 concentrations. The chlorine dioxide solution’s disinfecting capacity, virus aggregation and the resistant subpopulation were ruled out as reasons for tailing. Instead,the cause for tailing is the deposition of an adduct onto the virus capsid over the course of the experiment, which protects the viruses. This adduct could easily be removed by washing, which restored the susceptibility of the viruses to ClO2." "Important shortcoming of ClO2, namely its self-limiting effect on virus disinfection. Important to take this effect into account in treatment application." "Working solution of 0.410.7 mg/L chlorine dioxide. To compensate for ClO2evaporation and consumption throughout the experiment,concentrated ClO2(16 mg/L) was added at a rate of 8e20mL/min by means of a peristaltic pump."

The reactions between aqueous ClO2 and guanosine 5'-monophosphate (5'-GMP) are investigated from pH 5.96 to 8.30. The decay of ClO2 follows mixed first-order and second-order kinetics. The addition of chlorite (0.01-0.05 M) to the reaction mixture suppresses the reaction rate and changes the observe …

"Surprisingly, a mechanistic understanding of ClO2 reactions in (waste)water matrices is largely lacking"

Chlorination of drinking waters leads to the formation of trihalomethanes arising from the reaction of chlorine and organic substances. Therefore, chlorine dioxide (ClO2) which does not produce trihalomethanes is being considered as an alternative disinfectant. It has been reported that rat blood ch …

In this study, chlorine dioxide (ClO2) was used as an alternative disinfectant with vanillic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, and humic acid as the organic precursors in a natural aquatic environment. The primary disinfection by-products (DBPs) formed were trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HA …

1982