"The corrosion scale will cause much more significant ClO2 loss in corroded iron pipes of the distribution system than the total organic carbon t... The application of ClO2 in the water distribution system using cast-iron pipes is not recommended unless measures to prevent corrosion are fully implemented . Although ClO2 loss caused by corrosion scale was much slower in the copper pipe ..., it may still be necessary to prevent the corrosion and unnecessary loss of disinfectant"

Common Uses and P.P.M. General Reference Guide  This chart is for general reference only. Some applications such as commercial water applications may require a different ppm or CT time depending on the specific application, amount of contamination, and microbes being targeted. This chart is representative of the amounts of chlorine dioxide known to be used for applications based on product information, EPA, and FDA reports. PLEASE NOTE: OUR PRODUCTS ARE NOT REGISTERED BY THE E.P.A. AND ARE OFFERED ONL

A method of making a composition having the property of being able to store chlorine dioxide includes mixing an aqueous chlorine dioxide solution with a superabsorbent, water-soluble polymer that is substantially unreactive with chlorine dioxide and permitting a mixture formed thereby to form one of a gel and a solid composition. A method of delivering chlorine dioxide includes providing a gel or solid composition as described and degelling the gel or dissolving the solid composition to dispense the chlorine dioxide therefrom. A method of disinfecting a target such as water, wastewater, or ...

"As an oxidizer chlorine dioxide is very selective. It has this ability due to unique one-electron exchange mechanisms.

*****"[Note: Some statements about corrosion, reaction with phenols, Cl also released during some specific reactions, etc may have some inaccuracies] Like ozone and chlorine, chlorine dioxide is an oxidizing biocide and not a metabolic toxin. This means that chlorine dioxide kills microorganisms by disruption of the transport of nutrients across the cell wall, not by disruption of a metabolic process." "Unlike chlorine, Chlorine dioxide is effective at pH between 4 and 10. No dumping and filling with fresh water required;" "Chlorine dioxide can be used as a spray. All parts therefore, can easily be reached;" In scrubbers: "In scrubbers, Usually, a very low chlorine dioxide residual, around 0.2-ppm, is sufficient to ensure odour control." {includes effects on specific foods when rinsed}

****{Components of Sodium Chlorite} "Other materials are typically added to sodium chlorite powders or solutions before they are sold. Commercial sodium chlorite bleaching solutions contain special ingredients including anticorrosive agents, buffering agents, chlorine dioxide fume controllers, and surfactants. Anticorrosive agents are used to prevent the corrosion of stainless steel bleaching equipment. Buffer salts help liberate the chlorine dioxide that is produced during the bleaching process. Surfactants help stabilize solutions and allow for cleaning and penetration effects. Stabilized sodium chlorite solution can be stored for long periods without loss of activity. When the sodium chlorite is sold as a solid, sodium chloride is often included to make it safer to handle and store."

CHLORINE DIOXIDE FOR HOUSEHOLD USES

{Includes chart of acids' effectiveness in adjusting pH} "If you buy a 2% CLO2 product (Oxine), you are actually getting a 3.35% Sodium Chlorite in that jug or drum. It is essentially a 1.67 multiplier from the percentage of CLO2 that product claims...." "When using 5% stabilized CLO2 products like Pro Oxine after you achieve proper activation you will convert about 25% to 30% of that solution to CLO2. 70 to 75% of that solution will remain chlorite and be a part of your TOTAL working solution." "Pro Oxine’s product is buffered to an 8 to 8.5 pH solution while most tech grade products are buffered between a 9 to 10 pH solution, therefore the higher pKa acids perform poorly with tech grade chlorites. That is why you generally need more chlorite and more acid to generate FREE CLO2 with tech grade chlorites." "Around 2 to 2.5 pH for it to be effective at generating FREE CLO2." "Tech grade chlorites call for at least 15 minutes of contact with your acid or ‘activator’ before being administered into the water system. With Pro Oxine it calls for 10 minutes. This means it was able to generate the FREE component of the solution (actual CLO2) quicker. Pro Oxine was also able to get a FREE component at a lower TOTAL solution. " ***Other topic: "dropping the pH of the litter to below 4.0 will convert the litter into a medium hostile to the growth and survival of pathogenic bacteria. Normal gut flora, on the other hand, prefer a low pH environment so while dropping the litter pH to 4.0 or less will reduce pathogenic bacteria, it will actually create a favorable environment for healthy bacteria" "acidifying drinking water... assists in the establishment of normal flora, the exclusion of pathogens such as salmonella and the prevention of necrotic enteritis. The use of a mineral acid such as sodium bisulfate..."

******** "In water, chlorine dioxide is converted to chlorite and chlorate in a 70/15 ratio 4 "

*******!!!!*****!!!!**** "The ASC prepared by premixing highly concentrated reactants (in particular > 40%) followed by dilution (dilution after reaction, DAR) was more effective in inactivating foodborne pathogens, and it produced higher antimicrobial compound (Cl2 and ClO2) yields than the other procedures. " "Thus, food manufacturers or researchers could prepare an ASC solution with a much higher bactericidal activity using the DAR procedure, with smaller amounts of reactants in the final ASC solution."

****{Summary of specific characteristics***a 35 mg/L chlorine dioxide solution stored in a high-density Polyethylene Terephthalate (PETE) container for 45 days resulted in a 3% loss.. In contrast, the same study stored chlorine dioxide in a clear glass container for 31 days which resulted in a 12% gain, possibly due to continuing formation of chlorine dioxide from chlorite. Another study showed a 6.2% overall gain in chlorine dioxide concentration after 252 days of storage in a PETE container... Chlorite and chlorate show no disinfection capabilities and may cause adverse health effects in children... CTs required for a 2-log virus inactivation were 13 – 20 times higher at a pH of approximately 6 compared to a pH of 9 and 10... two to three-fold increase in inactivation rates per 10° C water temperature increase... bentonite appeared to offer protection or shield the viruses from chlorine dioxide... disinfection capability decreases in more turbid waters since microorganisms are protected by solid particles in water, protected by aggregation or clumping, and protected by loss of chlorine dioxide residual from oxidation of organic matter... Chlorine dioxide should easily achieve a 6-log *bacteria* inactivation at low temperatures and low pHs if chlorine dioxide is used for disinfection of more resistant viruses and cysts." "Colder water temperatures require higher CT values. Use a two-fold increase in CT for every 10° C decrease. Use longer contact time instead of higher dosages to achieve higher CT values. "

2006.

****!!!!*****!!!!***!!!**

{Includes drawbacks of sodium hypochlorite.} "Otherwise, use products that are approved by the EPA for use against the virus that causes COVID-19 **and that are suitable for porous surfaces.**"

Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is commonly used as an alternative disinfectant to chlorine in drinking water treatment because it produces limited concentrations of halogenated organic disinfection byproducts. During drinking water treatment, the primary ClO2 byproducts are the chlorite (50–70%) and the chlorate ions (0–30%). However, a significant portion of the ClO2 remains unaccounted for. This study demonstrates that when ClO2 was reacting with phenol, one mole of free available chlorine (FAC) was produced per two moles of consumed ClO2. The in situ formed FAC completed the mass balance on Cl for inorganic ClO2 byproducts (FAC + ClO2— + ClO3—). When reacting with organic matter extracts at near neutral conditions (pH 6.5–8.1), ClO2 also yielded a significant amount of FAC (up to 25%). Up to 27% of this in situ formed FAC was incorporated in organic matter forming adsorbable organic chlorine, which accounted for up to 7% of the initial ClO2 dose. Only low concentrations of regulated trihalomethanes were produced because of an efficient mitigation of their precursors by ClO2 oxidation. Conversely, dichloroacetonitrile formation from ClO2-induced generation of FAC was higher than from addition of FAC in absence of ClO2.

Not all Chlorine Dioxide Disinfectants are equally . The older acidified sodium chlorite solution technologies achieve only about 10-30% conversion of chlorite anion to chlorine dioxide, require a very acidic pH(around 2) and result in a much more corrosive solution and a higher amount ofcorrosive residue (in the form of unconverted sodium chlorite salt).

****!!!!****"If you buy a 2% CLO2 product (Oxine), you are actually getting a 3.35% Sodium Chlorite in that jug or drum. It is essentially a 1.67 multiplier from the percentage of CLO2 that product claims." "Sodium Chlorite is widely used as a sanitizer and can be effective at inhibiting bacteria. It is important to know that chlorite solutions can carry anti-microbial claims listed as static or stasis by the EPA. That means chlorite solutions can inhibit or prevent bacteria growth of present organisms" [without necessarily destroying them] "we have found the liquid inorganic acids like LpH 100 work best and allow for less acid to be used with higher conversion to CLO2." "Contact time with your acid or ‘activator’ and pH of the working solution your acid is creating. Those two dynamics will determine how much Chlorine Dioxide you actually generate." "When using 5% stabilized CLO2 products like Pro Oxine after you achieve proper activation you will convert about 25% to 30% of that solution to CLO2. 70 to 75% of that solution will remain chlorite and be a part of your TOTAL working solution. The remaining sodium chlorite is important and will play a critical role in how well your product works over time." "Bio-Cide’s AANE [Automatic Activation Non Electric] system... to deliver product without ever having to mix products but allows for proper contact time and pH in your working solution to generate FREE CLO2 in your water system. The system is very easy to set up and can be used with any pump system you already have" "So you can essentially have 1.8 ppm TOTAL and .8 ppm FREE under the potable water claim approved by the EPA." " you never have to turn off your system to run other supportive care products or water soluble antibiotics. Since CLO2 is a ‘selective’ oxidizer it doesn’t seem to negatively affect these other products"

1958 ***Includes important graphs on solubility, etc. {Translation of text at www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/kakoronbunshu1953/22/3/22_3_153/_article/-char/en AND translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=auto&tl=en&u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstage.jst.go.jp%2Farticle%2Fkakoronbunshu1953%2F22%2F3%2F22_3_153%2F_pdf%2F-char%2Fja}

What is ClO₂?ClO₂ is an U.S. EPA approved sanitizer, disinfectant, deodorizer, tuberculocide, algaecide, fungicide and U.S. FDA recognized food additive and preservative. Chemical Signature ClO₂ Forms Gas Vapor or Liquid DescriptionChlorine dioxide (ClO₂) is an exceptionally effective and versatile yet low toxicity odor, mold and smoke eliminator. ClO₂ has a 50 year history of effective

****!!!!**** "The photochemical decomposition is characterized by small quantities of O3+ atoms and of equal amounts of chlorine atoms and molecular oxygen, the latter originating in the reaction: ClOO --- Cl + O2" "The isomer ClOO is formed by the geminate recombination of ClO and O, a process which is twice as important as diffusion of the fragments into the mass of the solution an done which represents 30% of the decomposition of the chlorine dioxide. Under our experimental conditions, the lifetime of the ClOO is less than one microsecond."

****!!!!**** "The method of chlorine dioxide bacterial kill at low ppm concentration seems to occur by the disruption of protein synthesis and enzyme inactivation.48 49 This is similar to the "time honored", non-toxic mechanism of some common antibiotics. Oxidation of RNA and DNA do not appear to take place, or are at least unimportant in the process. The site of action lies in the soluble fraction of the cell and there appears to be no damage to whole structural components such as ribosomes" "At high ClO2 ppm, the method of rapid bacterial and viral kill appears to be the softening and destroying of the cell wall or viral capsid.52 Human cells do not have similar cell walls and are apparently unaffected. Our skin and bodies are likely protected from the general oxidative effects of ClO2 by the many reducing agents in our cells and blood, such as catalase, glutathione, superoxide dismutase, vitamins E, C, A, B complex, uric acid, zinc and selenium. This is probably the same internal protective mechanism that prevents damage from oxygen and free radicals. Bacteria and viruses do not contain most of these reducing compounds. Because ClO2 is a strong oxidizing agent and also itself a free radical, it quickly neutralizes reactive molecules,such as ****cytokines**** and oxygen free-radicals such as NO•, O2¯, H2O2, HClO, and OH •that are produced in the body by macrophages. These oxygen compounds are released in response to stress or infection and cause inflammation and pain. Other potential irritants found in wounds are similarly oxidized or reduced, such as leukotrienes, TNF, and interleukin. This neutralizing property of ClO2, combined with its ability to completely disinfect, makes IOXIDERM and DIOXIGUARD ideal wound medications. Unlike iodine compounds, or chlorhexidine, healing is not impeded.53 54 Veterinarians have been treating deep wounds and abscesses on tigers and elephants as well as dogs and cats with outstanding success.55 DIOXIDERM GEL had similar striking results on human (otherwise non-healing) diabetic ulcers." "The NOAEL, from animal ingestion studies involving ClO2 and ClO2 ̄, ranges to 100 ppmv[???] about the concentration of Frontier's DioxiDerm gel for topical use. . Water solutions of ClO2 will remain stable for several months if stored in a glass or PET bottle. “Stabilized” chlorine dioxide, which is a buffered solution ofsodium chlorite, does not release ClO2 until the pH of the solution is brought below 3." "Many nutrition and toxicology studies have been performed assessing chlorine dioxide's effect on flour. Treatment of flour with 200 ppm, fed to rats, had no effect after several generations.24,25 Flour treated with up to 500 ppm (5 times the concentration in DioxiCure Gel) fed to puppies had no untoward effect.26 Thirteen human subjects fed experimentally for six weeks with flour products that were treated with doses up to 400 ppm had no detectable toxic symptoms.27 Flour bleached with normal dosage is not reduced appreciably in nutritive value.28 Essential fatty acids are generally not effected, but tocopherol and cystine are oxidized." "hippuric acid, cinnamic acid, betaine, creatine, alanine, phenylalanine, valine, leucine, asparaginic acid, asparagine, glutaminic acid, serine, hydroxyproline, taurine, ... HO groups in alcohols and HO acids"

****!!!!**** (2019) {Instructions (some of which probably need changes/corrections) for many uses. Also, lists of pathogens affected, with linked studies.} Vapor for Disinfection & Mold Elimination: 1 Gram Chlorine Dioxide per 1 square feet (w/10’ ceilings) [Researcher calcs: (0.28 m3). =3,571 mg/m3=1,275 ppmV in air], 3 to 24 hours – depending on issue severity of issue *****Concentrations to use for many applications****chart below shows how well ClO2 performs against alternatives. (other disinfectants)** Pathogens lisr with studies references **RECOMMENDED SPECIFICATIONS FOR CONTAINERS USED WITH CLO2 PRODUCTS...wear a NOISH/MSHA-approved respirator under the following conditions..." "Initial or remedial treatment... DECORATIVE AND ORNAMENTAL FOUNTAINS... Achieve a 5 ppm solution RESIDUAL concentration" "Continuous treatment... between 0.25 ppm and 0.5ppm"

**Derived from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7403125/

***Tailing occurs even at constant ClO2 concentrations. The cause for tailing is the deposition of an adduct onto the virus capsid over the course of the experiment, which protects the viruses. This adduct could easily be removed by washing, which restored the susceptibility of the viruses to ClO2. This finding highlights an important ***shortcoming of ClO2, namely its self-limiting effect on virus disinfection***. It is important to take this effect into account in treatment applications to ensure that the water is sufficiently disinfected before human consumption.

**

****"the unit consumption of disinfection agent per unit organic matters (represented by ClO2/DOC) is in the following sequence hydrophobic substance > hydrophilic substance > non-acid hydrophilics. It indicated that larger molecular organic precursors had larger consumption of disinfectant. We also discovered that after the reaction of the three different organic substances with chlorine dioxide, the largest amount of disinfection by-products were generated by the non-acid hydrophilics."