The present invention provides for a composition, including: a sufficient first amount of a first active agent dispersion; where the first active agent dispersion has a pKa of 0.1 - 2.0, where the first active agent dispersion is selected from the group consisting of: an acid cation exchange resin, an acidic zeolite, an acidic clay, an organic acid, an inorganic acid, and any combination thereof, and where the first active agent dispersion includes a plurality of particles; where the plurality of particles has a median diameter of between 0.5 - 1000 micrometers; and a sufficient second amou...

This chapter contains two main sections-the first section describes the chemistry and reactions of chlorine dioxide, and the second describes the disinfection by-products (DBPs) of chlorine dioxide and their control. **A short section on Research Needs completes this chapter.** The section on chemistry and reactions is presented first because it lays the foundation for the reactions that are possible with chlorine dioxide, and in many cases, helps to explain some of the DBPs that have been reported. This chapter is intended to provide an overview of chemistry, reactions, and DBPs of chlorine dioxide and, as such, is not meant to be an exhaustive treatise. An extensive reference list is provided for additional details, especially with regard to the mechanisms of reaction.

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1 of products mentioned: Selective Micro...patented membrane system to generate CD in water. ...liquid water never contacts reactant material inside the [microreactor] sachet because membrane is gas-permeable, allowing only water vapor inside. Only pure CD gas is transferred across the membrane and out of the sachet. Advantage: it rapidly generates concentrated CD of highest purity at neutral pH. With no impurities released, corrosion is minimal or nonexistent for stainless steel, plastics, and other materials commonly used... In a series of animal tests at certified laboratories, CD generated by microreactor sachets has been shownto be nontoxic for liquid ingestion and inhalation at concentrations well above those for recommended use.

The plastic stick releasing ClO2 (13 ppmv/hr) gas was enough to inhibit the bacterial growth with 99%. ..chlorine dioxide must be treated higher to inhibit the growth of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) and K. pneumoniae, which are potent pathogenic. According to a research paper by different concentration of ClO2 (Hsu et al., 2016), after 40 weeks of ClO2 use by 0.3~0.5 mg/L, the overall non- fermented gram negative bacillus colonies decreased signifi- cantly.

{Specific hazards of ingredients in various types of cleaners and disinfectants.}

"Some all-purpose cleaners contain the sudsing agents diethanolamine (DEA) and triethanolamine (TEA). When these substances come into contact with nitrites, often present as undisclosed preservatives or contaminants, they react to form nitrosamines - carcinogens that readily penetrate the skin. 1,4-dioxane, another suspected carcinogen, may be present in cleaners made with ethoxylated alcohols. Butyl cellosolve (also known as ethylene glycol monobutyl ether), which may be neurotoxic (or cause damage to the brain and nervous system), is also present in some cleaners." "Alkylphenol ethoxylates (APEs)... are suspected hormone disruptors that don't readily biodegrade, threatening fish and wildlife when they go down your drain. And triclosan, the active ingredient in most antibacterial soaps, was detected in 57.6% of stream water samples from across the U.S." "U.S. Geological Survey found persistent detergent metabolites in 69% of streams tested. Sixty-six percent contained disinfectants." "Aerosol sprays produce tiny droplets that are easily inhaled and absorbed into the body, and their propellants, usually butane and propane, are flammable."

{Includes drawbacks of sodium hypochlorite.} "Otherwise, use products that are approved by the EPA for use against the virus that causes COVID-19 **and that are suitable for porous surfaces.**"

Search for EPA registration in list of disinfectant labels

The inactivation of single-particle stocks of human (type 2, Wa) and simian (SA-11) rotaviruses by chlorine dioxide was investigated. Experiments were conducted at 4 degrees C in a standard phosphate-carbonate buffer. Both virus types were rapidly inactivated, within 20 s under alkaline conditions, when chlorine dioxide concentrations ranging from 0.05 to 0.2 mg/liter were used. Similar reductions of 10(5)-fold in infectivity required additional exposure time of 120 s at 0.2 mg/liter for Wa and at 0.5 mg/liter for SA-11, respectively, at pH 6.0. The inactivation of both virus types was moderate at neutral pH, and the sensitivities to chlorine dioxide were similar. The observed enhancement of virucidal efficiency with increasing pH was contrary to earlier findings with chlorine- and ozone-treated rotavirus particles, where efficiencies decreased with increasing alkalinity

Because of the November 1979 amendment to the National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations, many utilities were faced with changing their disinfection practices to comply with the 0.10-mg/L maximum contaminant level for trihalomethanes (THMs). After considering various options, one utility, the Evansville (Ind.) Water and Sewer Utility, chose chlorine dioxide disinfection as the most feasible method for controlling THMs. The performance of a 100-gpm (6.3-L/s) pilot plant that incorporated chlorine dioxide was so effective for reducing THMs that it has been used in Evansville's full-s...

Toilet flushing resulted in extensive contamination of surfaces within the restroom. Addition of disinfectant to the toilet bowl prior to flushing reduced the level of contamination in the bowl and fomites after flushing.

Patent by SC Johnson & Son. Novel combination of triethylene glycol as an air sanitizer and soft surface deodorizer and an alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium saccharinate as a soft surface sanitizer and hard surface disinfectant.

Chlorine Dioxide is a powerful and safe odor eliminator and disinfectant that is finally available for use in your home. Learn more.

" this study investigated the reactions of ClO2 with 30 model compounds, 10 humic substances and 2 surface waters. ClO2- yields were found to be dependent on the distribution of functional groups. ClO2 oxidation of amines, di- and tri-hydroxybenzenes at pH 7.0 had ClO2- yields 50%, while oxidation of olefins, thiols and benzoquinones had ClO2- yields..."

ClO2 is frequently used as a pre-oxidant in water treatment plants. However, the effects of ClO2 pre-oxidation on disinfection by-product (DBP) formation, especially the highly toxic nitrogenous DBPs, during subsequent chlor(am)ination have not been studied thoroughly... Results imply that ClO2 is probably more suitable for use in combination with chloramination disinfection, rather than chlorination, in the integrated control of CX3R-type DBPs from source waters abundant in AAs.

Phenolic moieties in natural organic matter (NOM) are important precursors of disinfection by-products (DBPs). In this study, the formation of chloral hydrate from chlorination of seventeen phenolic compounds, including mono-, di- and tri-hydroxybenzenes, were evaluated and the role of chlorine diox …

Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is commonly used as an alternative disinfectant to chlorine in drinking water treatment because it produces limited concentrations of halogenated organic disinfection byproducts. During drinking water treatment, the primary ClO2 byproducts are the chlorite (50–70%) and the chlorate ions (0–30%). However, a significant portion of the ClO2 remains unaccounted for. This study demonstrates that when ClO2 was reacting with phenol, one mole of free available chlorine (FAC) was produced per two moles of consumed ClO2. The in situ formed FAC completed the mass balance on Cl for inorganic ClO2 byproducts (FAC + ClO2— + ClO3—). When reacting with organic matter extracts at near neutral conditions (pH 6.5–8.1), ClO2 also yielded a significant amount of FAC (up to 25%). Up to 27% of this in situ formed FAC was incorporated in organic matter forming adsorbable organic chlorine, which accounted for up to 7% of the initial ClO2 dose. Only low concentrations of regulated trihalomethanes were produced because of an efficient mitigation of their precursors by ClO2 oxidation. Conversely, dichloroacetonitrile formation from ClO2-induced generation of FAC was higher than from addition of FAC in absence of ClO2.

Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) has been used as a disinfectant in water treatment for a long time, and its use for micropollutant abatement in wastewater has recently been suggested. Surprisingly, a mechanistic understanding of ClO2 reactions in (waste)water matrices is largely lacking. The present study contributes to this mechanistic understanding by performing a detailed investigation of ClO2 reactions with organic matter using phenol as a surrogate for reactive phenolic moieties. A concept for indirectly determining HOCl using 2- and 4-bromophenol was developed. The reaction of phenol with ClO2 formed chlorite (62 ± 4% per ClO2 consumed) and hypochlorous acid (HOCl) (42 ± 3% per ClO2 consumed). The addition of ClO2 to wastewater (5 × 10–5 M ClO2) resulted in 40% atenolol and 47% metoprolol transformation. The presence of the selective HOCl scavenger glycine largely diminished their transformation, indicating that atenolol and metoprolol were transformed by a fast reaction with HOCl (e.g., k (atenolol + HOCl) = 3.5 × 104 M–1 s–1) that formed in ClO2 reactions with the wastewater matrix. The formation of HOCl may thus increase the number of transformable micropollutants in ClO2 applications. However, chlorine related byproducts may also be formed.

"for the selective oxidants, the competition disappears rapidly after the ERMs present in EfOM are consumed. In contrast, for hydroxyl radicals, the competition remains practically the same during the entire oxidation. Therefore, for a given oxidant dose, the selective oxidants were more efficient than hydroxyl radicals for transforming ERMs-containing micropollutants, while hydroxyl radicals are capable of transforming micropollutants even without ERMs"

Comparison between NaDCC, sodium hypochlorite, and Peracetic acid (PAA)

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Explanation of Definitions, Terms, Concepts. Data on chemical pesticides (insecticides, herbicides etc). Health effects including cancer, water pollution, pesticide use, etc.

Data on 6,500 pesticides, insecticides and herbicides including toxicity, water pollution, ecological toxicity, uses and regulatory status.

TwinOxide (Chlorine Dioxide) as an Alternative to Peracetic Acid for Disinfection.

"for complete inactivation of HAV and Feline calicivirus, concentrations > or = 0.6 mg/l are required. This observation is true for Coxsackie B5 too, but this virus has shown a good sensitivity at all concentration tested according to regression analysis results. For Feline calicivirus and HAV, at low concentrations of disinfectant, prolonged contact times were needed to obtain a 99.99% reduction of viral titres (about 16 and 20 minutes respectively). "

The first hour of exposure to 1 μg and 5 μg ClO2 caused only partial killing with significant growth reduction starting at the second hour, and without further significant reduction at the third hour. However, 10 μg ClO2 exposure led to massive bacterial cell death at 1 h with further increase in cell death at 2 and 3 h. The first hour exposure to 1 μg ClO2 caused activation of primary defense and survival mechanisms. However, the defense response was attenuated during the second and third hours. Upon treatment with 5 μg ClO2, the transcriptional networks showed massive downregulation of pathogenesis and stress response genes at the first hour of exposure, with decreasing number of differentially expressed genes at the second and third hours. In contrast, more genes were further downregulated with exposure to 10 μg ClO2 at the first hour, with the number of both upregulated and downregulated genes significantly decreasing at the second hour. A total of 810 genes were uniquely upregulated at the third hour at 10 μg ClO2, suggesting that the potency of xenobiotic effects had led to potential adaptation.