***!!!!** {Includes chlorine dioxide concentration levels that oxidize various medicines} "The formation of undesirable by-products can be controlled by minimizing the dose of ClO2 and applying post-treatment using, for example, ferrous iron (Fe2+) or sulfite (SO3 2-), which reduces ClO2 and chlorite residuals to chloride [22,23]. The removal of ClO2 and chlorite residuals allows higher levels of ClO2 to be used for treatment providing effective micropollutant removal. " "Wastewater effluents were collected from two wastewater treatment plants in Sweden, one with extended nitrogen removal (low COD) and one without (high COD). "

****!!!!**** "Chlorine dioxide chemistry works by selective oxidation, targeting the biocide where it is needed most." "Generally Chlorine Dioxide (ClO2) rapidly oxidises phenol type compounds, secondary and tertiary amines, organic sulphides and certain hydrocarbon polycyclic aromatics such as benzopyrene, anthracene and benzoathracene. In general, Chlorine Dioxide will not react on double carbon bonds, aromatic cores, quinionic and carboxylic structures as well as primary amines and urea. Commercial applications have shown that Chlorine Dioxide can effectively oxidise many compounds considered to be waste and water pollutants. The table below lists a selection of pollutants found in various industries from our files, and demonstrates the wide range of possible applications for Chlorine Dioxide... Aldehydes... Amines and Mercaptans" "Chlorine Dioxide, however reacts with THM precursors primarily by oxidation to make them non-reactive or unavailable for THM production."

****!!!!**** "the reaction between the ferrous ion and chlorite is very fast (5–15 s) over a range of pH 6.5–8.0; in this condition a ferrous ion dose of 3.31 mg Fe/mg ClO2 completely reduced chlorite to chloride, producing minimal residual soluble iron. For pH higher than 8.0–8.5, chlorite removal is lower due to the natural transformation of the ferrou ions to ferric hydroxide. Within these pH values, chlorite can be removed completely with ferrous ion concentrations higher than the stoichiometric value. Moreover, the application of ferrous salts for chlorite removal during the coagulation process enhances the performance of the coagulation and flocculation treatment"

{Includes chart of critical levels for pathogens in water} "Shock treatment is recommended twice a year and usually requires a concentration of 20-50ppm chlorine dioxide be maintained for 12 hours, and then the irrigation system thoroughly rinsed before irrigation begins again, due to risk of phytotoxic effects with high concentrations. After shock treatment, a continuous treatment of 0.25ppm residual chlorine dioxide is usually sufficient to prevent regrowth of biofilm. " "The optimum chlorine dioxide range to treat biofilms and common plant pathogens is 0.25 to 3.3 ppm"

****!!!!****"If you buy a 2% CLO2 product (Oxine), you are actually getting a 3.35% Sodium Chlorite in that jug or drum. It is essentially a 1.67 multiplier from the percentage of CLO2 that product claims." "Sodium Chlorite is widely used as a sanitizer and can be effective at inhibiting bacteria. It is important to know that chlorite solutions can carry anti-microbial claims listed as static or stasis by the EPA. That means chlorite solutions can inhibit or prevent bacteria growth of present organisms" [without necessarily destroying them] "we have found the liquid inorganic acids like LpH 100 work best and allow for less acid to be used with higher conversion to CLO2." "Contact time with your acid or ‘activator’ and pH of the working solution your acid is creating. Those two dynamics will determine how much Chlorine Dioxide you actually generate." "When using 5% stabilized CLO2 products like Pro Oxine after you achieve proper activation you will convert about 25% to 30% of that solution to CLO2. 70 to 75% of that solution will remain chlorite and be a part of your TOTAL working solution. The remaining sodium chlorite is important and will play a critical role in how well your product works over time." "Bio-Cide’s AANE [Automatic Activation Non Electric] system... to deliver product without ever having to mix products but allows for proper contact time and pH in your working solution to generate FREE CLO2 in your water system. The system is very easy to set up and can be used with any pump system you already have" "So you can essentially have 1.8 ppm TOTAL and .8 ppm FREE under the potable water claim approved by the EPA." " you never have to turn off your system to run other supportive care products or water soluble antibiotics. Since CLO2 is a ‘selective’ oxidizer it doesn’t seem to negatively affect these other products"

****** "The most common method of generating ClO2 is through the reaction of chlorine gas with a solution of sodium chlorite. Theoretically, 1 lb of chlorine gas is required for each 2.6 lb of sodium chlorite. However, an excess of chlorine is often used to lower the pH to the required minimum of 3.5 and to drive the reaction to completion. Sodium hypochlorite can be used in place of the gaseous chlorine to generate chlorine dioxide. This process requires the addition of sulfuric or hydrochloric acid for pH control. Other methods used for chlorine dioxide generation include:..." "Complex organic molecules and ammonia are traditional chlorine-demand materials that do not react with chlorine dioxide. " "The chemical behavior and oxidation characteristics of aqueous chlorine dioxide are not well understood because of the difficulty in differentiating aqueous chlorine-containing species." "Chlorine dioxide consumed in water treatment reactions reverts to chlorite ions (ClO2-), chlorate ions (ClO3- ), and chloride ions (Cl -)." "As a gas, chlorine dioxide is more irritating and toxic than chlorine. Chlorine dioxide in air is detectable by odor at 14-17 ppm, irritating at 45 ppm, fatal in 44 min at 150 ppm, and rapidly fatal at 350 ppm. Concentrations greater than 14% in air can sustain a decomposition wave set off by an electric spark. The most common precursor for on-site generation of chlorine dioxide is also a hazardous material: liquid sodium chlorite. If allowed to dry, this powerful oxidizing agent forms a powdered residue that can ignite or explode if contacted by oxidizable materials. The hazardous nature of chlorine dioxide vapor and its precursor, and the volatility of aqueous solutions of chlorine dioxide, require caution in the design and operation of solution and feeding equipment."

****!!!!****** {Includes equations for predicting impact of variables in determining quantity of byproducts} "At 20oC, pH 7, 70-80% of chlorine dioxideinjected was converted to chlorite and 0-10% of that was transformed into chlorate within 120 min with 2.91 mg/Lof DOC. The amount of chlorite formed also increased when pH and temperature increased. As DOC content increased,the residual chlorine dioxide decreased but the amount of chlorite and chlorate were increased. These experimentsrevealed that chlorate was a dominant by-product under UV irradiation."

***!!!!*** {Includes table of pathogen effectiveness levels} "Chlorite is the major inorganic by-product of the reaction of chlorine dioxide in water. Usually, the amount of chlorite formed will be 40-60% of the amount of chlorine dioxide which has reacted. " "Chlorine dioxide systems: acid chlorite and electrochemical generators "Typical chlorite yield for an acid-chlorite generator varies between 65-68%. Overall conversion efficiency is much lower than this as much of the acid remains unreacted." "Chlorine Dioxide ClO2 will inactivate pathogenic micro-organisms at the same rate between pH 5 and 9. This makes it ideal for disinfection of potable water and process water where the pH is up around 8.0." "ClO2 is approximately 5 times more soluble than chlorine and 50 times more soluble than ozone." "Chlorine Dioxide Reaction with Inorganic Compounds--Ammonia Nitrogen... Iron... Manganese..." "Sulfur Compounds... Cyanide..." "Oil and Gas... frac water"