Chemical & Biological Dynamics

Chlorine dioxide is an oxidizing, unstable, reactive, toxic, irritating, yellowish-to-reddish gas with a pungent odor resembling chlorine or nitric acid. The U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) forbids the transport of pure chlorine dioxide, which normally is diluted to less than 10 percent in a cold solution and shipped as a hydrate in its frozen form resembling orange-colored ice. It is used as a bleaching agent for beeswax, fats, flour, leather, oils, textiles, and wood pulp; in water-tr

Researchers at the U.S. Army Natick Soldier Research, Development and Engineering Center invented a next-generation disinfectant system that kills the Ebola virus on surfaces.

"four formulations of RenNew-P (a close relative of RenNew-D) for possible use in the prophylaxis of CAPD peritonitis. RenNew-P (Alcide Corp. , Norwalk, Conn. , USA) is based on chlorous acid/ chlorine dioxide generating systems and differences between the four formulations involve variations in chlorite ion content, chlorous acid/ chlorine dioxide ratio, absolute concentration of available chlorine dioxide, and the nature of activators and solution pH."

"The 2 commonest fungal isolates from our animal house environment were isolated and identified ... as an Aspergillus sp. and a Penicillium sp" "It appears that in the above test, 'Alcide is capable of killing both the spores and vegetative cells of contaminants isolated from our units and animals."

" Inactivation ofL. buchneriandL. mesenteroidesincreased with greater concentration of ClO2gas, higher holding temperature, higher relative humidity, and more exposure time. Under the conditions of this study, all the selected micro-organisms could be completely inactivated, resulting in a sterilized surface. The recommended treatments for assuring sterility were 10 mg l−1ClO2gas for an exposure time of 30 min coupled with (a) high relative humidity (>90%) and holding temperatures between 9 and 28°C, or (b) high holding temperatures (25–28°C) and relative humidity above 69%."

Europe PMC is an archive of life sciences journal literature.

Microbiological contamination of eggs should be prevented in the poultry industry, as poultry is one of the major reservoirs of human Salmonella. ClO[2] gas has been reported to be an effective disinfectant in various industry fields, particularly the ...

RESIDUES FROM CHLORINE DIOXIDE GAS TREATMENT, GENERATED BY DIFFERENT DELIVERY SYSTEMS, ON FRESH PRODUCE By

Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is an alternative oxidant to chlorine for the treatment of drinking water. ClO2 must be produced on site by the oxidation of chlorite ion or the reduction of chlorate ion. Eac...

Methods and compositions formed as a reaction product of mono-, or di-, or polysaccharide with organic, phosphoric, or boric acid, combined with chlorine dioxide or salt of chlorite, may be dry, water free, power, tablet, paste, or gel. Disinfectant for surfaces, skin, mouth, water, industrial processes, bacterial and fungal diseases. Methods of making chlorine dioxide by irradiating chlorite salt solution with UV and optionally an acid and optionally recovered by aeration.

"Spores of B. subtilis treated with hypochlorite or chlorine dioxide did not accumulate damage to their DNA, as spores with or without the two major DNA protective α/β-type small, acid soluble spore proteins exhibited similar sensitivity to these chemicals; these agents also did not cause spore mutagenesis and their efficacy in spore killing was not increased by the absence of a major DNA repair pathway. Spore killing by these two chemicals was greatly increased if spores were first chemically decoated or if spores carried a mutation in a gene encoding a protein essential for assembly of many spore coat proteins. Spores prepared at a higher temperature were also much more resistant to these agents. Neither hypochlorite nor chlorine dioxide treatment caused release of the spore core's large depot of dipicolinic acid (DPA), but hypochlorite- and chlorine dioxide-treated spores much more readily released DPA upon a subsequent normally sub-lethal heat treatment than did untreated spores." "Hypochlorite and chlorine dioxide do not kill B. subtilis spores by DNA damage, and a major factor in spore resistance to these agents appears to be the spore coat. ...While chlorine dioxide-killed spores can undergo the initial steps in spore germination, these germinated spores can go no further in this process probably because of some type of membrane damage."

***** "test rig working in a flow-through mode similar to the disinfection procedures in waterworks, but under tightly defined conditions, including very short contact times. To quantify the influence of DOC, temperature and pH on the efficacy of two standard disinfectants, chlorine and chlorine dioxide, simulated use tests were systematically performed. This test rig enabled quantitative comparison of the reduction of four test organisms, two viruses and two bacteria, in response to disinfection. Chlorine was substantially more effective against Enterococcus faecium than chlorine dioxide whereas the latter was more effective against the bacteriophage MS2, especially at pH values of >7.5 at which chlorine efficacies already decline. Contrary to expectation, ***bacteria were not generally reduced more quickly than viruses.*** Overall, the results confirm a high efficacy of chlorine and chlorine dioxide, validating them as standard disinfectants for assessing the efficacy of new disinfectants"

**** {M. avium in this paper is called "resistant" to chlorine dioxide, but doesn't appear to be described as "developing resistance" as a result of exposure.} "This study documents the heretofore suspected disinfectant resistance of M. avium... the CT99.9% values of chlorine dioxide and ozone for the M. avium strains were at least 100- and 50-fold greater (respectively) than those for the E. coli strain. In agreement with other studies (4), chlorine dioxide was a better mycobacterial disinfectant than chlorine at equal concentrations."

"Facility 2 was cleaned and disinfected with a chlorine dioxide based solution (Clidox-s, Pharmacal Research Laboratories Inc.,) and all the equipment was autoclaved whenever possible. Two weeks later, facility 2 was repopulated without any further sanitation treatment and no evidence of hyperkeratotic dermatitis was observed in the following months. The reason for the reappearance of the disease in facility 1 [the facility not treated with chlorine dioxide] is unknown. Surprisingly the disease reappeared in the facility where sanitation procedures had been more accurate."

Chlorine Dioxide has been used in trials studying the treatment of Halitosis.

"Sodium chlorite: A new antiseptic tor the leather industry" "New method for preventing bacterial damage on hides. Advantages of sodium chlorite."

{Water treatment, contact lens solution, etc} Contact Lens Solution: "(Regard™) using a combination of sodium chlorite (NaClO2; used to disinfect mains water) and trace amounts (100 ppm) of hydrogen peroxide (Atkins 2004). The peroxide stabilises the inherently unstable chlorine dioxide (ClO2) generated, and the combination is said to be effective against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, fungi and yeasts. Decomposition products are sodium chloride, water and oxygen. When lenses are removed from solution, the residual sodium chlorite decomposes readily into sodium chloride and oxygen. " "It is a powerful oxidant that disrupts protein synthesis, making it an efficient antimicrobial. However, penetration of biofilms can be challenging and chlorine dioxide can take months to achieve microbial control, can corrode pipework and readily decomposes, particularly in hot water, though higher concentrations can be used in the hot water supply.130,133,134 Concentrations of 0.5 mg/l are effective against planktonic and sessile Legionella in hot water systems. However, The Drinking Water Inspectorate advises a maximum of 0.5 mg/l chlorine dioxide in drinking water "

"(PREFACE: While the author is not a chemist he has worked extensively for years with the manufacture of sodium chlorite solutions" " The higher oxidation capacity means that Chlorine Dioxide will remove 5 electrons from the target, whereas chlorine can only remove 2. Chlorine will bind to a pathogen, and other chemicals and compunds that may be present. Chlorine DIoxide being more selective, will not bind with other compounds. Because of this capacity, Chlorine Dioxide is more efficient than Chlorine, Ozone, or Hypochlorus Acid when used as a disinfectant." " Bacteria is killed through the oxidation process mentioned above. The chloride dioxide steals five electrons from the amino acid of the targeted pathogen. The amino acid becomes unable to produce the proteins necessary to maintaining the cell wall. The cell wall collapses and the pathogen dies. Viruses are killed by the reaction of Chlorine DIoxide to peptone. Peptone is vital to the protein formation of the virus. It becomes unable to function, thus "starving" the virus. Pathogens can't build a resistance to Chlorine Dioxide. Even so called "Superbugs" that are resistant to antibiotics have no defense. Chlorine dioxide attacks these pathogens at the molecular level, not through poisoning."

***** 2006 "ClO2 were effective against P. expansum spores (up to 5 log CFU and 4 log CFU reduction, respectively), but **addition of surfactants was not beneficial.** All solutions were less effective at 4C compared to 24C irrespective of the presence ofsurfactants."

"Only Globalex tablets produce ClO2 only"

****!!!!*** "Both chlorine dioxide and iodine reacted with the capsid proteins of poliovirus and changed the pI from pH 7.0 to pH 5.8. However, the mechanisms of inactivation of poliovirus by chlorine dioxide and iodine were found to differ. Iodine inactivated viruses by impairing their ability to adsorb to HeLa cells, whereas chlorine dioxide-inactivated viruses showed a reduced incorporation of [14C]uridine into new viral RNA. We concluded, then, that chlorine dioxide inactivated poliovirus by reacting with the viral RNA and impairing the ability of the viral genome to act as a template for RNA synthesis."

***** "ClO2 at 10 μg ml−1 effectively reduced conidial germination of all decay fungi tested after treatment for 0·5 min. Chlorine dioxide only kills by contact, not systemically, and is effective only on exposed fungal propagules, such as those suspended in water or on the surface of fruit. It does not kill pathogens under the fruit skin or active infections. Chlorine dioxide can be difficult to use indoors because when a treated water stream is agitated or aerated, some of the ClO2 comes out of solution and enters the atmosphere. There is a permissible exposure level of 0·1 μg ml−1 in the air, but workers will respond to the odour before that level is reached. In USA, for this reason the recommended rate for indoor applications is μg ml−1 or less"

"The inactivation mechanisms were explored by analyzing the leakage of intracellular substances, the increase in extracellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP), deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and proteins as well as the changes in spore morphology. The kinetics of inactivation by chlorine dioxide fitted the Chick-Watson model, and different fungal species showed different resistance to chlorine dioxide inactivation, which was in the following order: Cladosporium sp.>Trichoderma sp. >Penicillium sp., which are much more resistant than Escherichia coli." "Regarding the three genera of fungal spores used in this study, chlorine dioxide was more effective at inactivation of fungal spores than chlorine." "The effect of disinfectant concentration and temperature was positive, and the impact of pH levels (6.0 and 7.0) was insignificant, whereas the influence of water matrices on the inactivation efficiency was negative. The increased concentration of characteristic extracellular substances and changes of spore morphology were observed after inactivation with chlorine dioxide and were due to cell wall and cell membrane damage in fungal spores, causing the leakage of intracellular substances and death of a fungal spore."

{Unsure whether study included chlorine dioxide?} "viability assessment methods of esterase activities and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) were optimized, and the effects of chlorine-based disinfectants on fungal spores were evaluated by flow cytometry (FCM) and plating."

1987