****!!!!**** "guidelinevalue for chlorine dioxide was not needed as chlorine dioxide is reduced primarily to chlorite, chlorate and chloride in drinking-water, and to chlorite and chloride upon ingestion"

*****Poison Control Reports, etc.

Volume 3 of the Drinking Water and Health series examined the toxicity of several major disinfectants and many of the by-products formed during drinking water disinfection.

****!!!!****!!!! "Chlorine dioxide is used directly as a bleaching agent for cellulose, textiles, flour, leather, oils, and beeswax. It is also used in the purification of water and as a bactericide and antiseptic." "The annual statewide industrial emissions ... were estimated to be 1136 pounds of chlorine dioxide" "Case reports of human occupational exposure to chlorine dioxide have shown that 19 ppm was fatal to one worker and 5 ppm was definitely irritating. Seven out of 12 workers exposed regularly to chlorine dioxide at levels generally below 0.1 ppm (0.28 mg/m3) reported symptoms of ocular and respiratory irritation leading to slight bronchitis. However, the authors ascribed the bronchitis to occasional acute excursions of chlorine dioxide levels"

****!!!!****!!!!****

(2000)

OEHHA recommends an action level of 200 ug/L (ppb) chlorate in drinking water. " A concentration-dependent lag phase was seen before methemoglobin was formed, presumably reflecting time required for chlorate to enter or hemolyze RBCs. Other effects on RBCs included increased permeability to cations, increased resistance to hypotonic hemolysis, and prolonged filtration time through polycarbonate membranes. This suggests an increased RBC membrane rigidity due to membrane protein polymerization, as demonstrated by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Simultaneously, erythrocyte enzymes were inactivated, primarily glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase."

****!!!!*** {Excellent summaries of studies of effects on health, legal limits, etc}

****!!!!*** {Excellent summary of toxicity studies regarding health, and more}

***!!!!*** 2017 Jan "Since in aqueous solutions, sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) and chlorine share the same anion (ClO-) and, thus, release the very same active substance (i.e. active chlorine, thought to consist of hypochlorite, hypochlorous acid and chlorine in equilibrium), read-across is possible for all the toxicological end-points." "In the acute inhalation toxicity study (Anonymous, 1970), inactivity and lacrimation were evident at the dose of 10.5 mg avCl/L (1 h exposure). No deaths occurred (LC0 >10.5 mg avCl/L). Thus, the LC50 was determined to be greater than 10.5 mg avCl/L." "...by a factor of 4 for dusts and mists according to Annex I, notes to Table 1.1, paragraph c). However, in the case of sodium hypochlorite which only exerts local effects at the ****side [site?] of first contact, it is expected that local irritative effects are rather concentration than time dependent. Hence, findings for 4-h exposure durations are expected to be similar to those observed after 1-h exposures. " "ystemic toxicity after inhalation exposure towards sodium hypochlorite would therefore occur only secondary to locally irritating effects mainly caused by the local oxidation and basic nature of hypochlorite and its solutions. The remaining sodium and chloride ions are physiologically essential elements and are required in the intermediary metabolism and can therefore not be regarded as typical xenobiotics when entering the body."

****!!!!*** Current date. {There are likely some errors in this info} "PubChem CID 24870. Structure, chemical names, physical and chemical properties, classification, patents, literature, biological activities, safety/hazards/toxicity information, supplier lists, and more."

2004 Sept.

Current date. Chlorine Dioxide CAS # 10049-04-4 and Chlorite CAS # 7758-19-2

2004 Sept. {Summary from Toxicological Profile}

{regarding lab test on interaction with berries, as impacting health concerns}

1991. {Includes toxicology data} from IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, No. 52. IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Lyon (FR): International Agency for Research on Cancer. "Mouse: Groups of 50 male and 50 female B6C3F1 mice, six weeks old, were given 0.0, 0.025 or 0.05% sodium chlorite (82–87% pure [impurities unspecified]) in the drinking-water for 80 weeks. Survival at 85 weeks was: males—control, 35/50; low-dose, 47/50; high-dose, 43/50; females—control, 47/50; low-dose, 50/50; high-dose, 50/50."

Nov 1990 thru Oct 2000. {Safety levels for people}

{OSHA CURRENT LIMITS} NIOSH REL: 0.1 ppm (0.3 mg/m3) TWA, 0.3 ppm (0.9 mg/m3) STEL. Current OSHA PEL: 0.1 ppm (0.3 mg/m3) TWA. 1989 OSHA PEL: 0.1 ppm (0.3 mg/m3) TWA, 0.3 ppm (0.9 mg/m3) STEL. 1993-1994 ACGIH TLV: 0.1 ppm (0.28 mg/m3) TWA, 0.3 ppm (0.83 mg/m3) STEL

The daily drinking water consumption for the 10 kg child and 70 kg adult are assumed to be 1 L/day and 2 L/day

~2003. "Chlorine dioxide and chlorite (ions and salts) are strong oxidizers and react quickly in water or moist body tissues to form chloride ions. Consequently, chlorine dioxide and chlorite (ions and salts) are not detected in human tissues (e.g., blood, urine, fat, or breast milk). [Have some studies shown contradiction??]" " In water, chlorine dioxide is a strong oxidizer; **50–70%** of the chlorine dioxide that reacts with organic and inorganic compounds will immediately appear as chlorite (ClO2-) and chloride (Cl-) ions...chlorine dioxide does result in the formation of other DBPs (e.g., lower chlorinated organics, chlorate, and chlorite) which may be found in drinking water... ***Chlorine dioxide will decompose upon exposure to sunlight. The gas-phase absorption spectrum for chlorine dioxide is the same as in aqueous solution. The primary photochemical reaction of ClO2 in the gas phase corresponds to homolytic scission of one of the chlorine-oxygen bonds (i.e., ClO26ClO + O). Products of this initial reaction generate secondary products including doublet-state oxygen (O2*), chlorine (Cl2), and chlorine trioxide (Cl2O3) . If chlorine dioxide gas is diluted in air to below 15 volume percent, it can be relatively stable in darkness." "Chlorine dioxide alone will not hydrolyze in solution to any appreciable extent between pH 2 and 10. .." "Chlorite ions (ClO2-) are also effective oxidizing agents, although they react much slower than chlorine dioxide""Chlorine substitution in the products, however, is not entirely absent" "Under sunlight, some photolysis intermediates with long half-lives are capable of oxidizing bromide to from bromate."

{Includes Chlorine Dioxide info.} "Chlorine dioxide kills microorganisms directly by disrupting transport of nutrients across the cell wall." "Chlorine dioxide is a very reactive compound and breaks down quickly in the environment (ATSDR, 259 2004a). In air, sunlight rapidly causes chlorine dioxide to break down into chlorine gas and oxygen. When 260 used as a disinfecting agent, however, the product of chlorine dioxide is primarily chlorite. Although 261 chlorite in water may move into groundwater, reactions with soil and sediments may reduce the amount of 262 chlorite reaching groundwater. The toxic action of chlorite is primarily in the form of oxidative damage to 263 red blood cells at doses as low as 10 mg/kg of body weight. Toxic reaction products are not known to 264 occur when chlorite is mixed with organic materials."

Aug 2006. "Readers are referred to USEPA (2000a) for a detailed review of the effects seen at specific concentrations and exposure durations along with the derivation of the RfC."

2004 Sept. ********No reports were located in which gastrointestinal, musculoskeletal, endocrine, dermal, or metabolic effects were associated with inhalation exposure of humans or animals to chlorine dioxide or chlorite. *******Example concentrations: 150 ppm (420 mg/m3), 10 ppm (28 mg/m3), etc. {Contact info for Association of Occupational and Environmental Clinics (AOEC) & American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine (ACOEM)}

2000 Sept. "No studies examining the toxicity of inhaled chlorite were located,,,Under ambient conditions, airborne chlorite is likely to exist as a particulate, whereas inhalation exposure to chlorine dioxide is as a gas. Based on their physical and chemical properties, it is anticipated that inhaled chlorine dioxide and chlorite would have very different modes of exposure. Therefore, the potential hazards associated with exposure to these two chemicals are also very different."