The Second Law of Quantum Complexity
Electron gun - Wikipedia
An electron gun is an electrical component in some vacuum tubes that produces a narrow, collimated electron beam that has a precise kinetic energy.
An electron gun (also called electron emitter) is an electrical component in some vacuum tubes that produces a narrow, collimated electron beam that has a precise kinetic energy.
The largest use is in cathode-ray tubes (CRTs), used in nearly all television sets, computer displays and oscilloscopes that are not flat-panel displays. They are also used in field-emission displays (FEDs), which are essentially flat-panel displays made out of rows of extremely small cathode-ray tubes. They are also used in microwave linear beam vacuum tubes such as klystrons, inductive output tubes, travelling wave tubes, and gyrotrons, as well as in scientific instruments such as electron microscopes and particle accelerators.
Electron microscope - Wikipedia
An electron microscope is a microscope that uses a beam of accelerated electrons as a source of illumination. As the wavelength of an electron can be up to 100,000 times shorter than that of visible light photons, electron microscopes have a higher resolving power than light microscopes and can reveal the structure of smaller objects. A scanning transmission electron microscope has achieved better than 50 pm resolution in annular dark-field imaging mode and magnifications of up to about 10,000,000× whereas most light microscopes are limited by diffraction to about 200 nm resolution and useful magnifications below 2000×.
An electron microscope is a microscope that uses a beam of accelerated electrons as a source of illumination. As the wavelength of an electron can be up to 100,000 times shorter than that of visible light photons, electron microscopes have a higher resolving power than light microscopes and can reveal the structure of smaller objects. A scanning transmission electron microscope has achieved better than 50 pm resolution in annular dark-field imaging mode[1] and magnifications of up to about 10,000,000× whereas most light microscopes are limited by diffraction to about 200 nm resolution and useful magnifications below 2000×.
Cellular automaton - Wikipedia
A cellular automaton is a discrete model of computation studied in automata theory. Cellular automata are also called cellular spaces, tessellation automata, homogeneous structures, cellular structures, tessellation structures, and iterative arrays. Cellular automata have found application in various areas, including physics, theoretical biology and microstructure modeling.
A cellular automaton (pl. cellular automata, abbrev. CA) is a discrete model of computation studied in automata theory. Cellular automata are also called cellular spaces, tessellation automata, homogeneous structures, cellular structures, tessellation structures, and iterative arrays.[2] Cellular automata have found application in various areas, including physics, theoretical biology and microstructure modeling.
Self-assembly - Wikipedia
Self-assembly is a process in which a disordered system of pre-existing components forms an organized structure or pattern as a consequence of specific, local interactions among the components themselves, without external direction. When the constitutive components are molecules, the process is termed molecular self-assembly.
Self-assembly is a process in which a disordered system of pre-existing components forms an organized structure or pattern as a consequence of specific, local interactions among the components themselves, without external direction. When the constitutive components are molecules, the process is termed molecular self-assembly.
Radioactive decay - Wikipedia
Radioactive decay (also known as nuclear decay, radioactivity, radioactive disintegration, or nuclear disintegration) is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by radiation. A material containing unstable nuclei is considered radioactive. Three of the most common types of decay are alpha decay (α-decay), beta decay (β-decay), and gamma decay (γ-decay), all of which involve emitting one or more particles. The weak force is the mechanism that is responsible for beta decay, while the other two are governed by the electromagnetism and nuclear force.[1] A fourth type of common decay is electron capture, in which an unstable nucleus captures an inner electron from one of the electron shells. The loss of that electron from the shell results in a cascade of electrons dropping down to that lower shell resulting in emission of discrete X-rays from the transitions. A common example is iodine-125 commonly used in medical settings.
Naturalness (physics) - Wikipedia
In physics, naturalness is the property that the dimensionless ratios between free parameters or physical constants appearing in a physical theory should take values "of order 1" and that free parameters are not fine-tuned. That is, a natural theory would have parameter ratios with values like 2.34 rather than 234000 or 0.000234
Beyond Falsifiability: Normal Science in a Multiverse
Visualizing the 3D Schrödinger Equation: Quantum Eigenstates of a Particle Confined in 3D Wells
What do the quantum eigenstates of 3D wells look like?
In this video, we visualize the solutions of the 3D Schrödinger Equation computed for more than a total of 500 eigenstates of 2, 4, 8, and 12 wells, illustrating what the molecular orbitals for a molecule with that number of atoms look like.
These simulations are made with qmsolve, an open-source python package that we are developing for solving and visualizing quantum physics. You can find the source code here:
https://github.com/quantum-visualizations/qmsolve
The way this simulator works is by discretizing the Hamiltonian of an arbitrary potential and diagonalizing it for getting the energies and the eigenstates of the system.
The eigenstates of this video are computed with high accuracy (less than 1% of relative error) by diagonalizing a Hamiltonian matrix with a shape of 1,000,000 x 1,000,000.
For a molecule that contains only a single electron, an orbital is exactly the same that its eigenstate.
Therefore in these examples, the eigenstates are equivalent to the orbitals.
In the video, it can be noticed that the first molecular orbitals can be visualized as a first-order approximation as a simple linear combination of the orbitals of a single well. However, as the energy of the eigenstates raises, their wave function starts to take much more complex shapes.
Between each eigenstate is plotted a transition between two eigenstates. This is made by preparing a quantum superposition of the two eigenstates involved.
#QuantumPhysics #MolecularOrbitals #QuantumChemistry
Biggest unsolved problems in physics
Free energy principle - Wikipedia
The free energy principle is a theory in cognitive science that attempts to explain how living and non-living systems remain in non-equilibrium steady-states by restricting themselves to a limited number of states. It establishes that systems minimise a free energy function of their internal states (not to be confused with thermodynamic free energy), which entail beliefs about hidden states in their environment. The implicit minimisation of free energy is formally related to variational Bayesian methods and was originally introduced by Karl Friston as an explanation for embodied perception in neuroscience,[1] where it is also known as active inference.
Meson - Wikipedia
In particle physics, mesons (/ˈmiːzɒnz/ or /ˈmɛzɒnz/) are hadronic subatomic particles composed of an equal number of quarks and antiquarks, usually one of each, bound together by strong interactions. Because mesons are composed of quark subparticles, they have a meaningful physical size, a diameter of roughly one femtometre (10−15 m),[1] which is about 0.6 times the size of a proton or neutron. All mesons are unstable, with the longest-lived lasting for only a few hundredths of a microsecond. Heavier mesons decay to lighter mesons and ultimately to stable electrons, neutrinos and photons.
Neutrinos
Einstein & Chaplin
Humanity positioned at 2/3 of our Aeon
The emergent scale invariant output of inflation
Conformal geometry - Wikipedia
In mathematics, conformal geometry is the study of the set of angle-preserving (conformal) transformations on a space.
In a real two dimensional space, conformal geometry is precisely the geometry of Riemann surfaces. In space higher than two dimensions, conformal geometry may refer either to the study of conformal transformations of what are called "flat spaces" (such as Euclidean spaces or spheres), or to the study of conformal manifolds which are Riemannian or pseudo-Riemannian manifolds with a class of metrics that are defined up to scale. Study of the flat structures is sometimes termed Möbius geometry, and is a type of Klein geometry.
The paradox of the second law of Thermodynamics
Current aeon's particle horizon
Black hole information loss or quantum entanglement leak
Quantum harmonic oscillator - Wikipedia
The quantum harmonic oscillator is the quantum-mechanical analog of the classical harmonic oscillator. Because an arbitrary smooth potential can usually be approximated as a harmonic potential at the vicinity of a stable equilibrium point, it is one of the most important model systems in quantum mechanics. Furthermore, it is one of the few quantum-mechanical systems for which an exact, analytical solution is known
Creation and annihilation operators - Wikipedia
Creation operators and annihilation operators are mathematical operators that have widespread applications in quantum mechanics, notably in the study of quantum harmonic oscillators and many-particle systems
Black hole information paradox - Wikipedia
The information paradox appears when one considers a process in which a black hole is formed through a physical process and then evaporates away entirely through Hawking radiation. Hawking's calculation suggests that the final state of radiation would retain information only about the total mass, electric charge and angular momentum of the initial state. Since many different states can have the same mass, charge and angular momentum this suggests that many initial physical states could evolve into the same final state. Therefore, information about the details of the initial state would be permanently lost. However, this violates a core precept of both classical and quantum physics—that, in principle, the state of a system at one point in time should determine its value at any other time.[3][4] Specifically, in quantum mechanics the state of the system is encoded by its wave function. The evolution of the wave function is determined by a unitary operator, and unitarity implies that the wave function at any instant of time can be used to determine the wave function either in the past or the future.
The loss of information can be quantified in terms of the change in the fine-grained von Neumann entropy of the state. A pure state is assigned a von Neumann entropy of 0 whereas a mixed state has a finite entropy. The unitary evolution of a state according to Schrödinger's equation preserves the entropy.
Cosmic censorship hypothesis - Wikipedia
The weak and the strong cosmic censorship hypotheses are two conjectures concerned with the global geometry of spacetimes.
The weak cosmic censorship hypothesis asserts there can be no singularity visible from future null infinity. In other words, singularities need to be hidden from an observer at infinity by the event horizon of a black hole
Conformal cyclic cosmology - Wikipedia
The conformal cyclic cosmology hypothesis requires that all massive particles eventually vanish from existence, including those which become too widely separated from all other particles to annihilate with them.