Dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine are essential for neurotransmission in the mammalian system. These three neurotransmitters have been the focus of considerable research since modulation of their production and their interaction at monoamine receptors ...

Seriously, are they? Surprise - YES! Learn the truth about these dangerous synthetic chemicals today

After decades of opposition, a resurgence of interest in the psychotherapeutic potential of LSD is gaining acceptance in the medical community. Future acceptance of LSD as a psychotherapeutic adjuvant may be predicated on knowledge about its neural mechanisms of action. Preclinical drug discrimination assay offers an invaluable model to determine the neural mechanisms underlying LSD’s interoceptive stimulus effects. Unfortunately, current preclinical literature on LSD discrimination is based on results obtained exclusively in male subjects. The present study represents the first known preclinical assessment of possible sex differences in the discriminative stimulus effects of LSD. Adult female (n=8) and male (n=8) Sprague-Dawley rats were trained to discriminate 0.08 mg/kg LSD from saline under a fixed ratio 20 schedule of food reinforcement. Once discrimination was established, substitution tests were conducted with other hallucinogens (mescaline, DOM, psilocybin), mixed psychedelic-stimulants (MDMA, (+)-MDMA, (-)-MDMA, (+)-MDA, (-)-MDA), synthetic cathinones (MDPV, mephedrone) and psychostimulants (cocaine, amphetamine). Antagonist tests were conducted with serotoninergic antagonists (WAY 100,635, MDL 100,907, pirenperone) and dopaminergic antagonists (haloperidol, SCH 23390). Stimulus substitution results indicate higher levels of LSD-substitution with other serotonergic hallucinogens in females compared to males and some evidence for sex differences in the level of partial substitution by synthetic cathinones and the enantiomers of MDMA and MDA. Specifically, greater partial substitution was observed with (±)-MDMA, (+)MDMA, and (+)-MDA, in males and greater partial substitution was observed with (-)-MDMA , (-)-MDA, MDPV, and 4-MMC in females. Dopamine antagonists failed to block LSD in either males or females, but had stronger rate suppressant effects in males. The 5-HT2A antagonist, MDL 100,907 blocked LSD discrimination in both males and females, although complete blockade was evident at lower doses in males. These results suggest the relative contribution of serotonergic versus dopaminergic activity to the LSD cue varies between males and females. These findings may be informative for future investigations with human populations regarding possible sex differences in the subjective effects of LSD.

"New Emerging Psychoactive Substances: A Brief History and Pharmacology of 'Designer Drugs'" Presented by: Lisa Marzilli, PharmD, CDOE Abstract: The purpose of this educational lecture is to discuss current trends in "designer drugs" and issues surrounding these new and emerging products. The topic will be broken down categorically, addressing various classes of drugs based upon their mechanism of action. The categories that will be reviewed include: synthetic cannabinoids and synthetic...

Field Trip Psychedelics Inc. announced Tuesday the successful synthesis of FT-104, a novel compound that is believed to have psych...

The idea of a goal-directed arousal system in the brain implies the existence of some mechanism for selecting appropriate goals, for initiating the behaviours required to achieve them, and for signaling when they have been attained. If a goal proves favourable for survival in the prevailing circumstances, it is advantageous to reinforce behaviour leading to it; if the goal proves to be unfavourable, behaviour leading to it must be suppressed and avoidance action taken in future. Such a signalling system may be provided by certain ‘reward’ and ‘punishment’ pathways in the brain. These are closely integrated with arousal systems and with learning and memory, and appear to be fundamental for motivation, and for goal-seeking and avoidance behaviour.

How has Field Trip "unveiled" a novel compound? They haven't told us what it is. Also, what does it mean that they *believe* that is has...

We spoke to co-founder and executive chairman, Ronan Levy, to find out more about Field Trip’s approach to psychedelic therapy and why 2021 has been such a significant year in psychedelics.

Researchers have conducted a meta-analysis of 17 articles to find out which areas of the brain are involved in decision-making for rendering social punishment.

Researchers have conducted a meta-analysis of 17 articles to find out which areas of the brain are involved in decision-making for rendering social punishment.

Abstract. Incentives are primary determinants of if and how well an organism will perform a given behavior. Here, we examined how incentive valence and magnitud

Multiple 5-HT systems and multiple punishment processes - Volume 9 Issue 2

Reward and punishment have demonstrated dissociable effects on motor learning and memory, which suggests that these reinforcers are differently processed by the brain. To test this possibility, we use electroencephalography to record cortical neural activity after the presentation of reward and punishment feedback during a visuomotor rotation task. Participants were randomly placed into Reward, Punishment, or Control groups and performed the task under different conditions to assess the adaptation (learning) and retention (memory) of the motor task. These conditions featured an incongruent position between the cursor and the target, with the cursor trajectory, rotated 30° counterclockwise, requiring the participant to adapt their movement to hit the target. Feedback based on error magnitude was provided during the Adaptation condition in the form of a positive number (Reward) or negative number (Punishment), each representing a monetary gain or loss, respectively. No reinforcement or visual feedback was provided during the No Vision condition (retention). Performance error and event-related potentials (ERPs) time-locked to feedback presentation were calculated for each participant during both conditions. Punishment feedback reduced performance error and promoted faster learning during the Adaptation condition. In contrast, punishment feedback increased performance error during the No Vision condition compared to Control and Reward groups, which suggests a diminished motor ...

The stronger the connection between the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and temporal-parietal junction, the less likely people are to punish others for selfish deeds.

As rewards and punishments powerfully drive behavior, understanding whether motivational processes act via opponent versus common neural mechanisms is critical for understanding influences on brain a...

Scientific Reports - Brain responses to social punishment: a meta-analysis

intra-cranial self-stimulation