Most motivation theories in use today were developed in the United States by Americans and about Americans. Of those that were not, many have been strongly influenced by American theoretical work. Americans' strong emphasis on individualism has led to the expectancy and equity theories of motivation: theories that emphasize rational, individual thought as the primary basis of human behavior. The emphasis placed on achievement is not surprising given Americans' willingness to accept risk and their high concern for performance. The theories therefore do not offer universal explanations of motivation; rather, they reflect the values system of Americans.

Studies suggest that schools which emphasize task goals-the engagement in academic tasks for the purpose of learning and improving-are more conducive to Black students' academic success and well-being than are those that emphasize ego goals-engagement for the purpose of excelling and besting others.

<p class="MainText">Some students believe that their intellectual ability is a fixed trait. They have a certain amount of intelligence, and that's that. Students with this fixed mind-set become excessively concerned with how smart they are, seeking tasks that will prove their intelligence and avoiding ones that might not (Dweck, 1999, 2006). The desire to learn takes a backseat.</p> <p class="MainText">Other students believe that their intellectual ability is something they can develop through effort and education. They don't necessarily believe that anyone can become an Einstein or a Mozart, but they do understand that even Einstein and Mozart had to put in years of effort to become who they were. When students believe that they can develop their intelligence, they focus on doing just that.</p>

In reality, most students write many more entries than the minimum required. They also read each other's entries, and comment on them, as do I as the instructor. While the blog writing is motivated as a class assignment, student enthusiasm for the activity is contagious: Once a critical mass of active student bloggers is established (and of course, there are some who steadfastly refuse to have anything to do with it, incentives and penalties notwithstanding), off they go!

<p class="articletext">Researchers have found three consistent effects of using – and especially, emphasizing the importance of – letter or number grades:</p> <p class="articletext">1.&nbsp; Grades tend to reduce students’ interest in the learning itself.&nbsp;</p>

2.&nbsp; Grades tend to reduce students’ preference for challenging tasks.

3.&nbsp; Grades tend to reduce the quality of students’ thinking.

<p>When writing, let’s say, to the teacher, you are communicated to be evaluated.&nbsp; Assessment is the outcome, based on some set of expectations involving skills and/or knowledge. </p> <p>However, when writing to an authentic audience, what you are trying to earn is not an evaluation (though there may be one coming in the process).&nbsp; What you are writing for is a <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;">response</span>, and that response will be directed toward what you have invested in the work, not just the facts you have included or the skills you have demonstrated.</p>

<p>Rewards actually impede our problem-solving ability because they cause us to restrict our consideration of other ideas and to focus on only one or two ways to solve the problem.&nbsp; As one of the studies Dan references discovered,<strong> "once the task called for even<span style="text-decoration: underline;"> rudimentary cognitive skill</span>, <em>(my emphasis)</em>&nbsp; a larger reward led to poorer performance." </strong></p><p><strong><span style="font-size: 15px; font-family: Arial;">In a nutshell, rewards work for tasks where you don't have to think. As soon as you have to engage in any kind of thinking, rewards STOP WORKING. </span></strong></p>

One thing that was surprising to the students and to me was the comments thanking the students. I think that was new for them, having someone appreciate that they did this work.