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The term “topography” comes from a combination of two Greek words: “topo,” which means place, and “graphia,” which means writing. It is used to describe the study of a region’s forms and features, primarily to show their relative positions and elevations. Topography could refer to the forms and features themselves or a depiction of them (such as a map).

Unlike traditional maps which only represent the land horizontally, one made with a topographic map maker will represent the land vertically as well. These maps, also referred to as topo maps, show the form and elevation of an area, including the location and shape of hills, valleys, mountains, streams, and other natural or human-made features.

Contour Lines

Contour lines are the primary way in which topographic maps depict elevation. These imaginary lines connect points of equal elevation in order to present three-dimensional information on a two-dimensional map. This allows the viewer to visualize the height and shape of mountains, the depth of canyons, and the location of flat plains.  To determine the exact elevation of a location, you’ll need to know the contour interval – the difference in elevation between two contour lines. This will vary depending on the map, but regardless, you can calculate them yourself fairly easily. First, find the bolded contour lines that contain a number. These are the index contours, and the number is the elevation at the line.  Then, count the number of contour lines between each index contour, and divide the difference in elevation by that number. For instance, if you had one index contour with an elevation of 7,800 five contour lines apart from another index with an elevation of 8,000, the contour interval would be 40 ( (8,000 - 7,800) / 5 = 40 ).

The contour lines produced by your topographic map maker are often used to determine the slope or steepness of an area. The lines will be spaced farther apart when the slope is gentle, and closer together when the slope is steep. This is because, in steep areas, the elevation will increase at a greater frequency, so the lines will appear closer together. A completely flat meadow will have no contour lines, while a vertical cliff will have contour lines that are stacked on top of one another.

Features

You can also use contour lines to identify features of the land.  Peaks and Depressions: The innermost ring at the center of several other rings will typically represent a peak, but in some cases, it could represent a depression. Valleys: A valley is a type of depression in which water could flow down (if water is present), and they can be identified by their V or U shaped contour lines that point towards higher elevation (the peak). Cliffs: When two or more lines join together to form a single line, they represent a cliff. However, if the change in elevation isn’t great enough to call for another contour line, the cliff may not appear on the map. Ridges: A ridge is a chain of mountains or hills that create a continuous summit for an extended distance. These can be identified by V or U shaped contours that point towards lower elevation.  Saddles: A saddle is a low spot between two higher points of elevation, and on a topographic map, they appear as hourglass shaped contour lines.

401 Unauthorized vs 403 Forbidden

In web development, ensuring access control is essential in safely and efficiently managing APIs. The meanings of 401 Unauthorized and 403 Forbidden are sometimes confused. Nonetheless, both codes have to do with restricted resources, but they serve different purposes. In this article, we will explain the codes and instruct you on which one to use.

401 Unauthorized?​ The response is an HTTP error code for a request lacking valid authentication credentials from a client is referred to as the 401 Unauthorized status code. That being said, it means that before accessing the requested resource, it’s necessary for the server to authenticate itself to the client. If no credentials are provided or if wrong ones are given by the client, then what follows is a 401 status code.

When to Use 401 Unauthorized​ Use 401 Unauthorized when: No authentication details have been received yet from the client. The authentication information supplied – username and password/token – is not valid/has expired. There is no authorization header present in your requests like “Authorization.” For instance, if an API demands Bearer token for access but this token has not been included in any request or is incorrect it will issue back a response having HTTP status code 401 Unauthorized (the most common case).

403 Forbidden?​ The reason for using a 403 Forbidden status code is when the server recognizes the request, the client has been authenticated, but the client does not have permission to access the requested resource. It means that in this case, a client is known while a server intentionally turns down fulfilling the request because of inadequate privileges. When to Use 403 Forbidden​ Use 403 Forbidden when: Authenticated clientele lack sufficient permissions to reach given resources. Server denies resource access irrespective of client’s authentication state. Client’s access to resources is prohibited by any form of an access control system. For instance, an authorized user may try accessing an admin only page without having adequate role. Even if one gets logged in, the response will indicate 403 Forbidden if they do not have sufficient rights.